Abstract
A critical review is made of the studies on wound healing used for forensic purposes, focusing on the problem of which characteristics indicate that a parameter could be used as evidence in court. A panel analysing the more important information obtained by each marker is given, and a perspective of what might be expected from future research is discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Berg S (1972) Die Altersbestimmung von Hautverletzungen. Z Rechtsmed 70:121–135
Raekallio J (1972) Determination of the age of wounds by histochemical and biochemical methods. Forensic Sci 1:3–16
Janssen W (1984) Forensic histopathology. Springer, Berlin
Oehmichen M (1990) Die Wundheilung. Springer, Berlin
Oehmichen M (2004) Vitality and time course of wounds. Forensic Sci Int 144:221–231
Betz P (1994) Histological and enzyme histochemical parameters for the age estimation of human skin wounds. Int J Legal Med 107:60–68
Betz P (1995) Immunohistochemical parameters for the age estimation of human skin wounds. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 16:203–209
Ohshima T (2000) Forensic wound examination. Forensic Sci Int 113:153–164
Hernández-Cueto C, Girela E, Sweet DJ (2000) Advances in the diagnosis of wound vitality. A review. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 21:21–31
Kondo T (2007) Timing of skin wounds. Leg Med (Tokyo) 9:109–114
Raekallio J (1960) Enzymes histochemically demonstrable in the earliest phase of wound healing. Nature 188:234–235
Raekallio J (1970) Enzyme histochemistry of wound healing. Fisher, Stuttgart
Martin P (1997) Wound healing—aiming for perfect skin regeneration. Science 276:75–81
Singer AJ, Clark RA (1999) Cutaneous wound healing. N Engl J Med 341:738–746
Gillitzer R, Goebeler M (2001) Chemokines in cutaneous wound healing. J Leukoc Biol 69:513–521
Martin P, Leibovich SJ (2005) Inflammatory cells during wound repair: the good, the bad and the ugly. Trends Cell Biol 15:599–607
Pontieri GM, Russo MA, Frati L (2005) Patologia generale. Piccin, Padova
Swift ME, Burns AL, Gray KL, Di Pietro LA (2001) Age-related alterations in the inflammatory response to dermal injury. J Invest Dermatol 117:1027–1035
He L, Zhu J (1996) Distinguishing antemortem from postmortem injuries by LTB4 quantification. Forensic Sci Int 81:11–16
Ono E, Taniguchi M, Mita H, Fukutomi Y, Higashi N, Miyazaki E, Kumamoto T, Akiyama K (2008) Increased production of cysteinyl leukotrienes and prostaglandin D2 during human anaphylaxis. Clin Exp Allergy 39:72–80
Hernández-Cueto C, Vieira DN, Girela E, Marques E, Calvo MD, Villalobos M, Oliveira de Sà F, Villanueva E (1994) Prostaglandin F2a (PGF2a ): an inadequate marker of the vitality of wounds? Int J Leg Med 106:312–314
Grellner W, Georg T, Wilske J (2000) Quantitative analysis of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) in human skin wounds. Forensic Sci Int 113:251–264
Sato Y, Ohshima T (2000) The expression of mRNA of proinflammatory cytokines during skin wound healing in mice: a preliminary study for forensic wound age estimation (II). Int J Legal Med 113:140–145
Ishida Y, Kondo T, Kimura A, Matsushima K, Mukaida N (2006) Absence of IL-1 receptor antagonist in impaired wound healing along with aberrant NF-kB activation and a reciprocal suppression of TGF-ß signal pathway. J Immunol 176:5598–5606
Kondo T, Ohshima T (1996) The dynamics of inflammatory cytokines in the healing process of mouse skin wound: a preliminary study for possible wound age determination. Int J Legal Med 108:231–236
Kondo T, Ohshima T, Eisenmenger W (1999) Immunohistochemical and morphometric study on the temporal expression of interleukin-1α (IL-1α) in human skin wounds for forensic wound age determination. Int J Legal Med 112:249–252
Grellner W (2002) Time-dependent immunohistochemical detection of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) in human skin wounds. Forensic Sci Int 130:90–96
Bacci S, Romagnoli P, Norelli GA, Forestieri AL, Bonelli A (2006) Early increase in TNF-alpha-containing mast cells in skin lesions. Int J Legal Med 120:138–142
Grellner W, Vieler S, Madea B (2005) Transforming growth factors (TGF-alpha and TGF-beta1) in the determination of vitality and wound age: immunohistochemical study on human skin wounds. Forensic Sci Int 153:174–180
Ohshima T, Sato Y (1998) Time-dependent expression of interleukin-10 (IL-10) mRNA during the early phase of skin wound healing as a possible indicator of wound vitality. Int J Legal Med 111:251–255
Takamiya M, Fujita S, Saigusa K, Aoki Y (2008) Simultaneous detection of eight cytokines in human dermal wounds with a multiplex bead-based immunoassay for wound age estimation. Int J Leg Med 122:143–148
Kondo T, Ohshima T, Mori R, Guan DW, Ohshima K, Eisenmenger W (2002) Immunohistochemical detection of chemokines in human skin wounds and its application to wound age determination. Int J Legal Med 116:87–91
van der Laan N, de Leij LFMH, Ten Duis HJ (2001) Immunohistopathological appearance of three different types of injury in human skin. Inflamm Res 50:350–356
Jiao A, Fish SC, Mason LE, Shelling SH, Goldman SJ, Williams CM (2007) A role for endothelial selectins and nonallergic inflammatory disease. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 98:83–88
Cecchi R, D’Annibale C, Valente S, Ferrera V (2004) La vitalità delle lesioni da arma bianca: studio sperimentale. Zacchia 77:49–59
Dressler J, Bachmann L, Koch R, Müller E (1999) Enhanced expression of selectins in human skin wounds. Int J Legal Med 112:39–44
Takeuchi F, Streilein RD, Hall RP (2003) Increased E-selectin, IL-8 and IL-10 gene expression in human skin after minimal trauma: a potential explanation of regional distribution of skin lesions. Exp Dermatol 12:777–783
Nagaoka T, Kaburagi Y, Hamaguchi Y, Hasegawa M, Takehara K, Steeber DA, Tedder TF, Sato S (2000) Delayed wound healing in the absence of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 or l-selectin expression. Am J Pathol 157:237–247
Dressler J, Bachmann L, Kasper M, Hauck JG, Müller E (1997) Time dependence of the expression of ICAM-1 (CD 54) in human skin wounds. Int J Legal Med 110:299–304
Dressler J, Bachmann L, Koch R, Müller E (1999) Estimation of wound age and VCAM-1 in human skin. Int J Legal Med 112:159–162
Takamiya M, Saigusa K, Aoki Y (2002) Immunohistochemical study of basic fibroblast growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor expression for age determination of cutaneous wounds. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 23:264–267
Hayashi T, Ishida Y, Kimura A, Takayasu T, Eisenmenger W, Kondo T (2004) Forensic application of VEGF expression to skin wound age determination. Int J Legal Med 118:320–325
Jalkanen S, Salmi M (2008) VAP-1 and CD73, endothelial cell surface enzymes in leukocyte extravasation. Art, Thromb, Vasc Biol 28:18–26
Walcher K (1936) Die vitale Reaktion bei der Beurteilung des Gewaltsamen. Dtsch Z Gerichtl Med 26:193–211
Lasarov I (1988) Enzymaktivität von Leukozyten aus Schnittwunden der Haut mit verschiedener Wundaltersbestimmung. Z Rechtsmed 100:157–164
Dachun W, Jiazhen Z (1992) Localization and quantification of the nonspecific esterase in injured skin for the timing of wounds. Forensic Sci Int 53:203–213
Psaroudakis K, Tzatzarakis MN, Tsatsakis AM, Michalodimitrakis MN (2001) The application of histochemical methods to the age evaluation of skin wounds: experimental study in rabbits. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 22:341–345
Merli S, Gualdi G, Umani Ronchi G (1969) La diagnosi cronologica delle ferite cutanee. Zacchia 44:380–395
Raekallio J, Mäkinen PL (1969) Serotonin content as vital reaction I. Experimental investigation. Zacchia 44:587–594
Raekallio J, Mäkinen PL (1970) Serotonin and histamine contents as vital reaction II. Autopsy studies. Zacchia 45:403–414
Zhong FC, Zhen ZJ (1991) Localization and quantification of histamine in injured skin as parameters for the timing of wounds. Forensic Sci Int 51:163–171
Maeno Y, Takabe F, Inoue H, Iwasa M (1990) A study on the vital reaction in wounded skin: simultaneous determination of histamine and polyamines in injured rat skin by high-performance liquid chromatography. Forensic Sci Int 46:255–268
Fernández P, Bermejo AM, López-Rivadulla M, Concheiro L (1994) Biochemical diagnosis of the intravital origin of skin wounds. Forensic Sci Int 68:83–89
Yu-Chuan C, Bing-Jie H, Qing-Song Y, Jia-Zhen Z (1995) Diagnostic value of ions as markers for differentiating antemortem from postmortem wounds. Forensic Sci Int 75:157–162
Hernández-Cueto C, Luna A, Villanueva E (1984) Study of Cathepsin A and D activity and Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn, Fe, Na and K concentrations in wounds edges: its application to the differential diagnosis between vital and postmortem wounds. J Forensic Sci 24:301–302
Girela E, Hernández-Cueto C, Lorente JA, Villanueva E (1989) Post-mortem stability of some markers of intravital wounds. Forensic Sci Int 40:123–130
Eisenmenger W, Nerlich A, Glück G (1988) Die Bedeutung des Kollagens bei der Wundalterbestimmung. Z Rechtsmedizin 100:79–100
Fechner G, Hernández M, Bajanowski T, Sepulchre MA, Brinkmann B (1993) Immunohistochemical alterations after muscle trauma. Int J Legal Med 105:203–207
Fieguth A, Feldbrügge H, Gerich T, Kleemann WJ, Tröger HD (2003) The time-dependent expression of fibronectin, MRP8, MRP14 and defensin in surgically treated human skin wounds. Forensic Sci Int 131:156–161
Betz P, Nerlich A, Wilske J, Tübel J, Wiest I, Penning R, Eisenmenger W (1992) Immunohistochemical localization of fibronectin as a tool for the age determination in human skin wounds. Int J Legal Med 105:21–26
Betz P, Nerlich A, Wilske J, Tübel J, Penning R, Eisenmenger W (1993) The immunohistochemical localization of alpha-1-antichymotrypsin and fibronectin and its meaning for the determination of the vitality of human skin wounds. Int J Legal Med 105:223–227
Betz P, Nerlich A, Tübel J, Penning R, Eisenmenger W (1993) Localization of tenascin in human skin wounds—an immunohistochemical study. Int J Legal Med 105:325–328
Ortiz-Rey JA, Suárez-Peñaranda JM, Da Silva EA, Muñoz-Barús JI, San Miguel-Fraile P, De la Fuente-Buceta A, Concheiro-Carro L (2002) Immunohistochemical detection of fibronectin and tenascin in incised human skin injuries. J Forensic Sci 126:118–122
Ortiz-Rey A, Suárez-Peñaranda JM, Muñoz-Barús JI, Álvarez C, San Miguel-Fraile P, Rodríguez-Calvo MS, Concheiro-Carro L (2003) Expression of fibronectin and tenascin as a demonstration of vital reaction in rat skin and muscle. Int J Legal Med 117:356–360
Betz P, Tübel J, Eisenmenger W (1995) Immunohistochemical analysis of markers for different macrophage phenotypes and their use for forensic wound age estimation. Int J Legal Med 107:197–200
Kondo T, Tanaka J, Ishida Y, Mori R, Takayasu T, Ohshima T (2002) Ubiquitin expression in skin wounds and its application to forensic wound age determination. Int J Legal Med 116:267–272
Ishida Y, Kimura A, Takayasu T, Eisenmenger W, Kondo T (2009) Detection of fibrocytes in human skin wounds and its application for wound age determination. Int J Legal Med 123:299–304
Dressler J, Busuttil A, Koch R, Harrison DJ (2001) Sequence of melanocyte migration into human scar tissue. Int J Legal Med 115:61–63
Antoniades HN, Galanopoulos T, Neville-Golden J, Kiritsy CP, Lynch SE (1994) p54 expression during normal tissue regeneration in response to acute cutaneous injury in swine. J Clin Invest 93:2206–2214
Hausmann R, Nerlich A, Betz P (1998) The time-related expression of p53 protein in human skin wounds—a quantitative immunohistochemical analysis. Int J Legal Med 111:169–172
Ishida Y, Kimura A, Takayasu T, Eisenmenger W, Kondo T (2008) Expression of oxygen regulated protein 150 (ORP150) in skin wound healing and its application for wound age determination. Int J Legal Med 122:409–414
Bonelli A, Bacci S, Norelli GA (2003) Affinity cytochemistry analysis of mast cells in skin lesions: a possible tool to assess the timing of lesions after death. Int J Legal Med 117:331–334
Bonelli A, Bacci S, Vannelli B, Norelli GA (2003) Immunohistochemical localization of mast cells as a tool for the discrimination of vital and postmortem lesions. Int J Legal Med 117:14–18
Huttunen M, Naukkarinen A, Hosmanheimo M, Harvima IT (2002) Transient production of stem cells factor in dermal cells but increasing expression of kit receptor in mast cells during normal wound healing. Arch Dermatol Res 294:324–330
Oemichen M, Gronki T, Meissner C, Anlauf M, Schwark T (2009) Mast cell reactivity at the margin of human skin wounds: an early cell marker of wound survival? Forensic Sci Int 191:1–5
Rebolledo Godoy M, Rebolledo Godoy AP, Oehmichen M (2000) AgNORs during the process of wound healing. Time dependency as evaluated in vital and postmortem biopsy. Int J Leg Med 113:244–246
Oehmichen M, Lagodka T (1991) Time-dependent RNA synthesis in different skin layers after wounding. Experimental investigations in vital and postmortem biopsies. Int J Legal Med 104:153–159
Oehmichen M, Lagodka T, Cröpelin A (1997) RNA and DNA synthesis of epidermal basal cells after wounding. Comparison of vital and postmortem investigations. Exp Toxicol Pathol 49:233–237
Oehmichen M, Cröpelin A (1995) Temporal course of intravital and postmortem proliferation of epidermal cells after mechanical injury. Int J Legal Med 107:257–262
Sawaguchi T, Jasani B, Kobayashi M, Knight B (2000) Post-mortem analysis of apoptotic changes associated with human skin bruises. Forensic Sci Int 108:187–203
Cecchi R, Rosati R, Cave Bondi G (1999) L’apoptosi nella guarigione delle ferite cutanee. Zacchia 72:131–142
Betz P, Nerlich A, Tübel J, Wiest I, Hausmann R (1997) Detection of cell death in human skin wounds of various ages by an in situ end labelling of nuclear DNA fragments. Int J Legal Med 110:240–243
Suárez-Peñaranda JM, Rodríguez-Calvo MS, Ortiz-Rey JA, Muñoz JI, Sánchez-Pintos P, Da Silva EA, De la Fuente-Buceta A, Concheiro-Carro L (2002) Demonstration of apoptosis in human skin injuries as an indicator of vital reaction. Int J Legal Med 116:109–112
Kondo T, Ohshima T, Sato Y, Madama T, Eisenmenger W (2000) Immunohistochemical study on the expression of c-Fos and c-Jun in human skin wounds. Histochem J 32:509–514
Fieguth A, Kleemann WJ, von Wasielewski R, Werner M, Tröger HD (1997) Influence of postmortem changes on immunohistochemical reactions in skin. Int J Legal Med 110:18–21
Fieguth A, Kleemann WJ, Tröger HD (1994) Immunohistochemical examination of skin wounds with antibodies against alpha-1-antichymotrypsin, alpha-2-macroglobulin and lysozyme. Int J Legal Med 107:29–33
Hernández-Cueto C, Vieira DN, Girela E, Marques E, Villanueva E, Oliveira Sá F (1995) Diagnostic ability of D-dimer in the establishment of the vitality of wounds. Forensic Sci Int 76:141–149
Falanga V, Isaacs C, Paquette D, Downing G, Kouttab N, Butmarc J, Badiavas E, Hardin-Young J (2002) Wounding of bioengineered skin: cellular and molecular aspects after injury. J Invest Dermatol 119:653–660
Sun J, Wang Y, Zhang L, Gao C, Zhang L, Guo Z (2009) Time-dependent expression of skeletal muscle troponin I mRNA in the contused skeletal muscle of rats: a possible marker for wound age estimation. Int J Legal Med 124:27–33
Adel-Patient K, Bernard H, Ah-Leung S, Créminon C, Wal JM (2005) Peanut- and cow’s milk-specific IgE, Th2 cells and local anaphylactic reaction are induced in Balb/c mice orally sensitized cholera toxin. Allergy 60:658–664
van Wieringen T, Kimani SG, Hultgård-Ekwall AK, Forsberg J, Reyhani V, Engström A, Rubin K (2009) Opposite effects of PDGF-BB and prostaglandin E1 on cell-motility related processes are paralleled by modifications of distinct actin-binding proteins. Exp Cell Research 315:1745–1758
Tarran SL, Craft GE, Valova V, Robinson PJ, Thomas G, Markham R, Langlois NE, Vanezis P (2007) The use of proteomics to study wound healing: a preliminary study for forensic estimation of wound age. Med Sci Law 47:134–140
Acknowledgement
Authors are grateful to Mrs. Marian Shields for help with the linguistic style.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cecchi, R. Estimating wound age: looking into the future. Int J Legal Med 124, 523–536 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-010-0505-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-010-0505-x