Review article
Minerals, trace elements and related biological variables in athletes and during physical activity

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-8981(01)00598-8Get rights and content

Abstract

This review concerns various minerals (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus), trace elements (zinc, manganese, selenium, copper, iron, cobalt, iodine, chromium, fluorine, lead, cadmium) and other biological variables (nitric oxide, l-carnitine, glutamine, serum transferrin receptor, biopyrrins) in relation to hemorheologic effects, stress, immune response and infections during physical and sports activities. In athletes, macroelements in the ionized form contribute to heart and muscle contractions, oxidative phosphorylation and the synthesis and activation of enzymatic systems. Zinc (Zn) protects against the effects of increased free reactive oxygen species such as copper (Cu) and manganese (Mn) (Cu–Zn superoxide dismutases; Mn superoxide dismutase). Selenium in glutathione peroxidase protects the cardiovascular system and the muscles, and helps combat allergic and inflammatory diseases. Copper and iron are involved in many aspects of energy metabolism and are important components in the synthesis of hemoglobin, myoglobin and cytochromes. Fluorine and Cu protect the ligaments and tendons. Physical activity appears to be beneficial to urban residents who are exposed to metal pollution (lead, cadmium). The data cited in this review are often contradictory and incomplete. It is still unclear in many cases how minerals are involved in physiological changes, and much work remains.

Introduction

Human health depends on a delicate balance among reactions within the organism in which nerve, muscle, blood, bone, and endocrine and visceral tissues are continually renewed. Vital exchanges constantly occur, involving many enzymatic systems activated by minerals or trace elements. “Mens sana in corpore sano” wrote Juvenal (Satires X, 356; 60–140 AD) at a time when volcanic ash was consumed and geophagia compensated for mineral deficiencies in the diet.

Sports has long been regarded as an important cultural value, and the concept of health developed by the World Health Organization today implies living a balanced life and neutralizing stress through physical activity. However, very few publications have considered the value of minerals and trace elements in achieving this objective. The present review investigated most of the literature (particularly since 1994) on minerals, trace elements and some related biological variables in relation to athletes and physical activity.

Section snippets

Materials reviewed

Twenty-seven studies published between 1994 and 2000 were analyzed from Medline and ScienceDirect [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], representing contributions from the USA, France, Spain, Germany, Finland, Canada (Ontario), China (Taiwan), Malaysia, Japan and Sweden. These studies involved athletes or individuals of both sexes who performed significant or exceptional physical

Findings

All activities of human tissues and organs depend on minute mineral concentrations that act as enzyme biocatalysts. For some biological activities, certain macroelements or toxic trace elements also act as essential trace elements at concentrations below those of their constitutive role or with respect to their toxic nature, such as arsenic (As), vanadium (V) and Mn. During strenuous physical activity, the rate of energy turnover in skeletal muscles may increase several fold. As exercise

Conclusion

It would seem useful in research concerning athletes to relate NO metabolites, hemorheologic effects, immune response, infectious and allergic diseases, l-carnitine, glutamine, sTfR and/or biopyrrins to the minerals involved in energy metabolism and oxidative stress. In this respect, minerals have many functions: transportation of electrons in redox reactions (Fe); components of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase (Cu), superoxide dismutases (Cu, Zn, Mn), glutathione peroxidase (Se) and thyroid

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Prof. James Gray for native linguistic assistance in the preparation of this article.

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