Augmented reality applications in design and manufacturing
Introduction
Manufacturing is the process of transforming raw materials and information into finished commodities with good value-added for the satisfaction of human needs. It has been a key contribution to a nation's economic growth for the last few centuries and will continue to do so in the future. In the current highly competitive and dynamic business environment, the manufacturing industry is facing new challenges, which require a holistic perspective on the four main classes of manufacturing attributes, i.e., cost, time, quality and flexibility [30]. Manufacturing companies should be producing innovative products at low cost and reduced time-to-market. High product-mix with low volume, customisation to meet the individual demands of the customers, increasing legislation of environmental and other issues have further made manufacturing processes more complex and demanding. In addition, the increasing trend of globalized manufacturing environments requires real-time information exchanges between the various functional units in a product development life cycle, e.g., design, setup planning, production scheduling, machining, assembly, etc., as well as seamless task of collaboration among them. Manufacturing processes have to be more responsive and systematic in order to be efficient and economically competitive. On top of that, the increasing demand for goods results in an increasing demand for natural resources and energy. However, since resources and energy are finite, new ways of producing more with less ought to be found [33].
Due to the recent advancements in information technology (IT), manufacturing research has entered a new level of product planning, analysis and trouble shooting. Digital manufacturing has been considered, over the last decade, as a highly promising set of technologies for reducing product development times and cost as well as for addressing the need for customization, increased product quality, and faster response to the market [31]. Digital manufacturing has become a common trend worldwide as computer-integrated manufacturing systems have eliminated data handling errors and enhanced decision making. Computer simulation using CAD modelling tools and finite element analysis has assisted manufacturing engineers to reach decisions faster and free from errors. In just over a decade, augmented reality (AR) technology has matured and proven to be an innovative and effective solution to help solve some of the critical problems to simulate, assist and improve manufacturing processes before they are to be carried out. This would ensure that activities, such as design, planning, machining, etc., are done right-the-first-time without the need for subsequent re-work and modifications. AR is a novel human–computer interaction tool that overlays computer-generated information on the real world environment. The information display and image overlay are context-sensitive, which means that they depend on the observed objects [8], [9]. This novel technique can be combined with human abilities to provide efficient and complementary tools to assist manufacturing tasks. AR has already been demonstrated to be a solution in many applications, both in manufacturing and other fields. Several successful demonstrations have been made in the medical domain, military training, tele-robotics, entertainment, maintenance, and manufacturing [107], [177].
Research in the manufacturing applications using AR technology is a strong and growing area. The challenge is to design and implement integrated AR-assisted manufacturing systems that could enhance the manufacturing processes, as well as product and process development, leading to shorter lead-time, reduced cost and improved quality.
Section snippets
Hardware and software systems in AR
Developing successful AR applications is a challenging task. Despite recent advances in the AR technology in the last ten years, most of the AR systems developed so far are laboratory-based implementations. Extensive research has been carried out worldwide in addressing some of the critical issues in AR technology. Real-time tracking and computation are crucial since synchronization between the real and the virtual worlds must be achieved in the shortest possible time interval.
AR applications
Major AR research in design and manufacturing
Manufacturing is one of the most promising fields where AR can be used to improve the current techniques and provide solutions in the future [107]. With new advances in computer and manufacturing technologies, there is a growing trend of allowing users to interact directly with the manufacturing information associated with the manufacturing processes. AR has the ability to integrate these modalities in real time into the real working environment, which is useful for manufacturing activities,
Accuracy
Unlike applications in advertising, gaming, fashion, etc., AR applications in manufacturing and design requires a high level of accuracy in tracking and superimposition of augmented information. Outdoor AR systems use GPS and inertial tracking techniques with a combination of gyroscopes, electronic compass, accelerometers, and other types of sensors, together with CV tracking techniques. Precision and accuracy are generally lacking in outdoor applications but very often, a high level of
Industrial applications of AR
The majority of the AR research appears to have originated from the academia over the last two decades. Industrial AR applications are far less reported in comparison.
Regenbrecht et al. [125] reported a number of industrial applications of AR. The Boeing wire harnessing project in the early 1990s was amongst one of the earliest [96], [97] case studies.
In servicing and maintenance of complex equipment, and even a car's electrical circuits would call for a database system and advanced computer
Human factors and interaction in AR systems
Although AR has found a good number of applications in design and manufacturing, there are few in-depth studies that assess and evaluate human factors and interaction in AR systems. The limited understanding of human factor issues is likely to hinder widespread adaptation of AR systems beyond laboratory prototypes.
Trevisan et al. [163] mentioned that one of the central design aspects in HCI in AR is concerned with how real and virtual objects are combined into a real environment where a user
Future trends and directions
Although much progress in AR has been made in the recent two decades, potential AR manufacturing applications are still in exploratory and prototyping stages. This is unlike in games, education and entertainment, where accuracy and robustness are of a lesser concern. With significant improvements in tracking algorithms and faster response time of hardware, many manufacturing operations can be simulated effectively in near real-time where users will no longer perceive a time lapse, jittering of
Conclusions
Augmented reality has taken the world by storm as it has found applications in every area from sports, gaming, sales, advertising, learning, touring, to medical and manufacturing applications. New applications are being developed almost daily. Its ability to provide high user intuition and the relative ease of implementation has outperformed VR, which was one of the most notable impacts of the late 1990s. AR on handheld devices has found a proliferation of applications with the advent of smart
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the following colleagues for providing insightful and useful inputs to substantiate this keynote paper: R. Starker, Stephen Lu, Chris Zhang, and many other colleagues through verbal discussions. The authors would also like to thank all their graduate students for their contributions, without which this keynote paper would not have been possible.
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