Elsevier

Computers & Education

Volume 52, Issue 1, January 2009, Pages 1-12
Computers & Education

Digital Game-Based Learning in high school Computer Science education: Impact on educational effectiveness and student motivation

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.06.004Get rights and content

Abstract

The aim of this study was to assess the learning effectiveness and motivational appeal of a computer game for learning computer memory concepts, which was designed according to the curricular objectives and the subject matter of the Greek high school Computer Science (CS) curriculum, as compared to a similar application, encompassing identical learning objectives and content but lacking the gaming aspect. The study also investigated potential gender differences in the game’s learning effectiveness and motivational appeal. The sample was 88 students, who were randomly assigned to two groups, one of which used the gaming application (Group A, N = 47) and the other one the non-gaming one (Group B, N = 41). A Computer Memory Knowledge Test (CMKT) was used as the pretest and posttest. Students were also observed during the interventions. Furthermore, after the interventions, students’ views on the application they had used were elicited through a feedback questionnaire. Data analyses showed that the gaming approach was both more effective in promoting students’ knowledge of computer memory concepts and more motivational than the non-gaming approach. Despite boys’ greater involvement with, liking of and experience in computer gaming, and their greater initial computer memory knowledge, the learning gains that boys and girls achieved through the use of the game did not differ significantly, and the game was found to be equally motivational for boys and girls. The results suggest that within high school CS, educational computer games can be exploited as effective and motivational learning environments, regardless of students’ gender.

Introduction

Computer games (henceforth called ‘games’) have become an integral part of our social and cultural environment (Oblinger, 2004), and are particularly appealing to children and adolescents, for whom they constitute the most popular computer activity in the home (Downes, 1999, Harris, 1999, Mumtaz, 2001). A study on 7–16 years old students in the UK showed that most of them were regular domestic game players (McFarlane, Sparrowhawk, & Heald, 2002), whereas a more recent study (Papastergiou & Solomonidou, 2005) indicated that one of the main reasons for domestic internet use among Greek students aged 12–16 years old was online gaming. Games, thus, play a central role in young people’s lives outside school holding a special fascination and provoking a deep sense of engagement in them (Facer, 2003, Kafai, 2001, Kirriemuir, McFarlane, 2004). Essential game characteristics that contribute to this engagement are challenge, fantasy and curiosity (Malone, 1980).

Young people’s intrinsic motivation towards games contrasts with their often noted lack of interest in curricular contents (Prensky, 2003). In fact, the challenging world of games shapes students’ cognitive abilities and expectations about learning, making scholastic content and practices seem tedious and meaningless (Facer, 2003, Prensky, 2003), and creating a dissonance between formal education and the digital, informal learning environments that students experience outside school (Downes, 1999, Mumtaz, 2001, Oblinger, 2004). However, the motivation of games could be combined with curricular contents into what Prensky (2003) calls ‘Digital Game-Based Learning’ (DGBL). Games that encompass educational objectives and subject matter are believed to hold the potential to render learning of academic subjects more learner-centered, easier, more enjoyable, more interesting, and, thus, more effective (Kafai, 2001, Malone, 1980, Prensky, 2001). Specifically, games constitute potentially powerful learning environments for a number of reasons (Oblinger, 2004): (a) they can support multi-sensory, active, experiential, problem-based learning, (b) they favour activation of prior knowledge given that players must use previously learned information in order to advance, (c) they provide immediate feedback enabling players to test hypotheses and learn from their actions, (d) they encompass opportunities for self-assessment through the mechanisms of scoring and reaching different levels, and (e) they increasingly become social environments involving communities of players. Apart from knowledge acquisition, game playing can also favour the development of various skills, such as critical thinking and problem-solving skills (e.g. McFarlane et al., 2002). For all those reasons, Prensky’s (2001) assertion that game design methods and techniques should inform the design of educational software to be used in schools is increasingly gaining acceptance within the educational technology research community (Kirriemuir, 2002).

However, as pointed out by certain authors (Facer, 2003, Kafai, 2001, Kirriemuir, 2002, Kirriemuir, McFarlane, 2004) and indicated by the following overview of prior empirical research, although games are believed to be motivational and educationally effective, the empirical evidence to support this assumption is still limited and contradictory, particularly regarding the effectiveness of games for concrete educational purposes, given that prior studies have focused more on motivational aspects than on curricular content aspects and core academic benefits. In an overview of the instructional gaming literature, Randel, Morris, Wetzel, and Whitehill (1992) found that the reported results were equivocal regarding the differences between games and traditional teaching methods, with 38 studies reporting no differences, 27 studies favouring games and 3 studies favouring traditional methods. In a subsequent overview, Dempsey, Lucassen, and Rasmussen (1996) pointed out that in many studies specific learning outcomes were ignored. More recently, certain research projects, namely TEEM (‘Teachers Evaluating Educational Multimedia’, http://www.teem.org.uk/) and CGE (‘Computer Games in Education’, http://partners.becta.org.uk/index.php?section=rh&rid=13595), investigated the use of commercial games in schools, producing positive benefits mainly regarding skills development and motivation, whereas curricular-specific learning outcomes were rarely mentioned (Facer, 2003, Kirriemuir, 2002). Other studies and projects focused on games specifically designed for educational purposes, addressing their motivational impact, and, in certain cases, learning effectiveness. The E-GEMS (‘Electronic Games for Education in Math and Science’, http://www.cs.ubc.ca/nest/egems/) project demonstrated that games increased children’s motivation and academic achievement within mathematics and science education in grades 4–8 (Klawe, 1999). Nevertheless, the use of a language and mathematics game by students aged 8–12 years old revealed that many students were unable to articulate the underlying mathematical concepts (Young & Upitis, 1999). In another study, Yu, Chang, Liu, and Chan (2002) report on the use of a game for high school English, focusing on students’ preferences and satisfaction from the learning experience. Rosas et al. (2003) found that the use of games on portable devices led to improved motivation and learning outcomes compared to traditional teaching within primary school mathematics and reading, whereas a pilot evaluation of a mobile DGBL environment on animal behavior with children aged 11–12 years old showed that they were enthusiastic about the experience (Facer et al., 2004). Finally, Virvou, Katsionis, and Manos (2005) compared a virtual reality game to educational software lacking the gaming aspect, within primary school geography, reporting that the game was very motivating and that it helped the students retain or improve their knowledge.

Another issue is whether DGBL can be motivational and effective for all students. In particular, given that games have been traditionally considered a male-dominated domain (Cassell & Jenkins, 1998), both in terms of content (e.g. many games comprise combat and reflect gender stereotypes) and centrality in males’ and females’ lives (Facer, 2003), an interesting question is whether DGBL is equally appealing and effective for boys and girls. Prior research on domestic computer use has shown that games are more popular with boys, who are more frequent, intensive and experienced game players than girls, and more likely to participate in players’ communities for the exchange of game-related resources (Cassell and Jenkins, 1998, Downes, 1999, Facer, 2003, Harris, 1999, Mumtaz, 2001). Consequently, boys develop greater familiarity with computing hardware and software, and greater computer confidence and ability (Cassell and Jenkins, 1998, Downes, 1999, Papastergiou, 2008).

Prior empirical research on gender issues in the educational use of games is limited and has so far revealed important gender differences in students’ gaming practices and preferences, and equivocal findings regarding the impact of gender on the learning effectiveness of DGBL. Specifically, within the TEEM project, boys and girls preferred different kinds of games and also, boys played more games and for longer periods than girls (McFarlane et al., 2002). Within the E-GEMS project, boys and girls also showed different preferences towards the games used, and different levels of performance with boys making faster progress, although no significant gender differences were found in terms of achievement in the embedded subject matter (Klawe, 1999). However, in the study by Young and Upitis (1999), also commented in De Jean, Upitis, Koch, and Young (1999), although more girls than boys demonstrated interest in the game appreciating its female protagonist, more boys than girls concentrated on completing the game, developed strategies to share information, and successfully recognized the embedded mathematics.

The afore-presented overview of prior empirical research indicates several issues that need to be further investigated. Firstly, given the limited and equivocal prior findings on the learning effectiveness of DGBL, further empirical research within school settings is needed into the impact of DGBL on students, not only in terms of motivation, but also in terms of learning outcomes in relation to concrete curricular objectives within specific subject areas. Secondly, the majority of prior studies concern traditional, well-established scholastic disciplines (e.g. mathematics). The researcher’s bibliographical searches concerning Computer Science (CS), her area of interest and a relatively new scholastic discipline, revealed a lack of empirical evidence on the learning of CS concepts through instructional gaming within school settings. Specifically, the prior studies found (e.g. Duplantis et al., 2002, Prayaga, 2005, Werner et al., 2005) concerned learning of computer programming, and, hence, involved school students in programming games instead of learning through interacting with them. The use of DGBL for the learning of various CS concepts, which differs from the learning of practical programming skills, thus, warrants a field investigation. Thirdly, the greater part of prior research focuses on children, whereas the impact of DGBL on students during the critical time of adolescence has been less explored. Further research is needed especially concerning high school level, where the question of keeping students motivated in the learning process and maintaining their scholastic competence becomes more acute (Hagborg, 1992). Fourthly, most prior studies that include control groups compare DGBL to traditional teaching. However, such comparisons with human tutoring imply that games are meant to totally replace classroom practice instead of complementing it (Virvou et al., 2005). Furthermore, new modes of learning based on Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have emerged in recent years and become increasingly used in schools. It should, thus, be investigated whether DGBL is motivational and effective with students not only compared to traditional educational practices, but also compared to those modes. Finally, as girls increasingly use games (Prensky, 2003), further investigation of gender differences in the motivational impact and mainly the learning effectiveness of DGBL is needed, within various social and cultural contexts, given that the few recent empirical studies that have addressed the issue yielded contradictory findings, and were based only within the British and North American contexts.

The study presented in this paper attempts to fill in the afore-mentioned gaps in the research literature. The study aimed at assessing the learning effectiveness and motivational appeal of a game for learning computer memory concepts, which was designed on the basis of specific curricular objectives and subject matter pertaining to the Greek high school CS curriculum, as compared to a similar application in the form of a website, encompassing identical learning objectives and content but lacking the gaming aspect. Furthermore, the study aimed at investigating potential differences in the game’s learning effectiveness and motivational appeal as a function of students’ gender.

The study is unique in that it investigates the use of a game within real school settings for the purpose of teaching regular curricular CS content, other than programming, at high school level, while also comparing DGBL to another form of ICT-based learning and examining relevant gender issues. The study can further our understanding of the potential of DGBL. Specifically, it can help us learn whether educational games can be effective in promoting acquisition of domain knowledge and student engagement in the learning process within scholastic CS courses. In addition, it can provide insight into whether the impact of DGBL on students in terms of CS achievement and motivational appeal presents any differences between boys and girls.

Section snippets

Research design

The study compared two educational applications on computer memory concepts. The two applications were identical in terms of embedded learning objectives and learning material, and differed only in that one followed a gaming approach, whereas the other did not. Any differences in learning outcomes and appeal to students between the two applications could, thus, be attributed to the gaming factor.

The students that participated in the study were assigned to two groups, one of which used the

Comparison of the intervention groups as to biographical variables

The analysis of the students’ biographical data showed that the random assignment of the classes of students to the two intervention groups (Group A and Group B) resulted in no statistically significant differences between the two groups. Specifically, the two groups did not differ significantly as to their proportion of boys and girls (χ2 = 0.159, df = 1, p = 0.690). Furthermore, the ANOVAs that compared the rest of the biographical variables for the students of Group A and those of Group B showed

Discussion and conclusions

This study evaluated the learning effectiveness and motivational appeal of a computer game targeted at the learning of computer memory concepts taught within the Greek high school CS curriculum, as compared to a similar non-gaming application in the form of a website. Furthermore, the study investigated potential gender differences in the game’s learning effectiveness and motivational appeal. In what follows, the main findings and their implications are discussed.

The study demonstrated that the

Marina Papastergiou graduated in Computer Engineering and Informatics from the University of Patras (Greece) and received a Master’s and a Ph.D. diploma in Informatics Education from the University of Paris VII (France) and the University of Thessaly (Greece), respectively. She is a lecturer at the University of Thessaly and her research interests focus on Informatics in Education.

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    Marina Papastergiou graduated in Computer Engineering and Informatics from the University of Patras (Greece) and received a Master’s and a Ph.D. diploma in Informatics Education from the University of Paris VII (France) and the University of Thessaly (Greece), respectively. She is a lecturer at the University of Thessaly and her research interests focus on Informatics in Education.

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