Recent advances in use of silver nanoparticles as antimalarial agents

doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.04.042

International Journal of Pharmaceutics

Volume 526, Issues 1–2, 30 June 2017, Pages 254-270

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.04.042 Get rights and content

Abstract

Malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases, which has become a great public health problem all over the world. Ineffectiveness of available antimalarial treatment is the main reason behind its menace. The failure of current treatment strategies is due to emergence of drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum and drug toxicity in human beings. Therefore, the development of novel and effective antimalarial drugs is the need of the hour. Considering the huge biomedical applications of nanotechnology, it can be potentially used for the malarial treatment. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have demonstrated significant activity against malarial parasite (P. falciparum) and vector (female Anopheles mosquito). It is believed that AgNPs will be a solution for the control of malaria. This review emphasizes the pros- and cons of existing antimalarial treatments and in depth discussion on application of AgNPs for treatment of malaria. The role of nanoparticles for site specific drug delivery and toxicological issues have also been discussed.

Graphical abstract

Malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases, which has become a great public health problem all over the world. In effectiveness of available antimalarial treatment and emergence of drug resistance is the main reason behind its menace. In this context, nanotechnology will be the only solution for the control of malaria.

Introduction

In the year 2000, estimated malaria incidence was approximately 262 million cases worldwide, of which approximately 839,000 resulted in death. However, in 2015, these figures declined, with approximately 214 million cases worldwide and 438,000 deaths (WHO, 2015). Although, the number of cases of the diseases was reduced, malaria is still a highly prevalent disease in tropical and sub-tropical countries. It is caused by protozoan parasites belonging to the Plasmodium genus. Among hundreds of species, four are of great importance for disease manifestation in humans viz. Plasmodium malariae, P. ovale, P. vivax and P. falciparum – all transmitted through female Anopheles mosquito bite (Aditya et al., 2013). A single mosquito bite introduces various Plasmodium species into the host; and of these different species, P. falciparum is the most dangerous and prevalent in Africa and India, accounting for the majority of malaria-related deaths. P. vivax has a wider geographical distribution than P. falciparum because this species can grow in Anopheles mosquito at lower temperatures and can survive at higher altitudes (WHO, 2015).

Malaria is among the world's neglected diseases, which do not only persist in conditions of poverty but also contribute to the maintenance of socio-economical inequality. The affected population has little financial support; therefore, the medical and pharmaceutical industry has no interest in the development of new drugs and treatments, which would result in a limited monetary return. Disease control measures are yet challenging and include: (i) vector control by insecticide utilization; (ii) chemoprevention by compounds that prevent the blood stage infection, and (iii) diagnosis and treatment (WHO, 2015). Treatment regimens often include ≥2 associated drugs that cause side effects and have poor patient adherence. The absence of an effective vaccine and mechanisms of resistance to traditionally used drugs and insecticides render it even more critical to control the disease and execute measures for its elimination (Santos-Magalhaes and Mosqueira, 2010).

Due to unavailability of effective treatment strategies, transmission vector elimination is an important tool to control the vector borne diseases. Use of insecticides in malaria endemic areas is essential for protection against the disease because the vector transmission rate is extremely high (Murugan et al., 2015). However, the toxicity of insecticides to humans and the environment has generated pressing need to search for novel antimalarial compounds. In this context, nanotechnology-based products (nanomaterials) would be helpful in the management of malaria. The nanomaterials have a wide range of applications particularly in medicine, which contributes to major advances in the development of materials for increasing drug efficacy, drug delivery, reducing toxicity of compounds and enabling scheduled and sustained release of nanomaterials.

Section snippets

Malaria – a major threat

The incidence of pathogens associated with vectors, such as mosquitoes and other insects, are common issues in tropical and sub-tropical countries (Veerakumar and Govindarajan, 2014). Because of typical climatic conditions, such as rising temperature in the most affected areas, and social causes (uncontrolled and disorganized occupation of locations close to forests and mosquitoes breeding sites), malaria is yet a serious health issue. Parasite life cycle is substantially the same in the four

Life cycle of malaria

As previously mentioned, malaria is caused by the transmission of a parasite (Plasmodium) by female Anopheles mosquito. The malarial infection begins with injection of Plasmodium sp. into human body by mosquitoes at the time of blood meal. After infection, the parasite is carried by the circulatory system to the liver and erythrocytes (red blood cells), where it undergoes asexual replication and forms gametocytes. The life cycle of malaria requires two hosts for its completion (Fig. 1). The

Existing antimalarial drugs

Antimalarial drugs available to date are mainly used for the prevention and treatment of malarial infection. Most of the antimalarial drugs target the erythrocytic stage of the infection, which is considered as the phase that causes symptomatic illness. However, the hepatic stage (preerythrocytic stage) activity for most antimalarial drugs is not well studied (http://www.uptodate.com/contents/antimalarial-drugs-an-overview). Various programs like the malaria eradication campaign and others,

Resistance to antimalarial drugs

Although, various antimalarial drugs discussed above have been employed for their significant efficacy against malarial parasites, the widespread overuse of antimalarial drugs resulted in the development of resistance to almost all the pharmaceuticals discovered to date. In addition, the conditions in which the drugs are used act as one of the most important factors responsible for the development of resistance (White, 2004). It was reported that some antimalarial drugs are effective in many

Strategic role of nanotechnology in malaria

In spite of its diffusion, malaria is a preventable and curable disease (Bruxvoort et al., 2014), with a well-established treatment regimen that often includes the use of some effective antimalarial drugs alone or in combinations, defined according to the type of disease manifestation, presence or absence of Plasmodium resistance and the type of infecting species. Despite treatment availability, patient adhesion is critical for its success and to prevent disease recurrence and consequently,

Nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery in malaria

The main goal of using nanocarriers for drug delivery in malaria treatment is to overcome problems faced by conventional therapies. The problem of emerging resistance to antimalarial drugs is the main drawback of conventional therapy for malaria treatment. Certain features like low bioavailability, rapid metabolism and poor absorption make antimicrobial drug less effective (Anand et al., 2007, Miotto et al., 2013). However, the unique and special features of nanoparticles such as small size,

Toxicological issues

Although, AgNPs show antimalarial effects, the assessment of the risk associated with their use is also an essential factor (Krug, 2014). During recent era, the harmful effects of AgNPs are getting a wide attention for various applications and socio-economic benefits (Asmonaite et al., 2016). Many reports have claimed the toxicity of AgNPs to humans, animals and environment (Asharani et al., 2009, Gupta et al., 2015). In this context, the nanotoxicity studies have been directed towards the

Conclusions

Malaria is responsible for high morbidity and mortality throughout the world particularly in tropical and subtropical zones. Since its discovery many strategies have been employed for its control. The controlling mechanisms were mainly focused on inhibition of malarial parasite and vectors. Due to easy availability and curative properties, plants and their alkaloids have been used since the time immemorial for treatment of malaria. Synthetic insecticides such as DDT were used for the control of

Conflict of interest

The authors do not have conflict of interest to declare.

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ReviewRecent advances in use of silver nanoparticles as antimalarial agents

Abstract

Graphical abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Malaria – a major threat

Life cycle of malaria

Existing antimalarial drugs

Resistance to antimalarial drugs

Strategic role of nanotechnology in malaria

Nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery in malaria

Toxicological issues

Conclusions

Conflict of interest

Arab. J. Chem.

Adv. Colloid Interface Sci.

Aquat. Toxicol.

Int. J. Pharm.

Blood

Pharmacol. Ther.

Biochem. Pharmacol.

Int. J. Parasitol.

J. Asia. Pac. Entomol.

Exp. Parasitol.

J. Hazard. Mater.

Eur. J. Med. Chem.

J. Control. Release

Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.

Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol.

Life Sci.

Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.

Lancet

Coord. Chem. Rev.

Environ. Pollut.

Colloids Surf. B: Biointerfaces

Biomaterials

Biomater.

Ind. J. Med. Microbiol.

Biomaterials

J. Hosp. Infect.

FEBS Lett.

Amodiaquine-associated adverse effects after inadvertent overdose and after a standard therapeutic dose

Ghana Med. J.

Short peptide based nanotubes capable of effective curcumin delivery for treating drug resistant malaria

J. Nanobiotechnol.

Bioavailability of curcumin: problems and promises

Mol. Pharm.

Biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using floral extract of Chrysanthemum indicum L.-potential for malaria vector control

Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res.

Meyler's Side Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs

A Brief History of Malaria

Anti-proliferative activity of silver nanoparticles

BMC Cell Biol.

Comparison of the toxicity of silver, gold and platinum nanoparticles in developing zebra fish embryos

Nanotoxicology

Primaquine: the risks and the benefits

Malaria J.

Chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium vivax

Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.

Target nanoparticles: an appealing drug delivery platform

J. Nanomed. Nanotechnol.

In vitro antimalarial activity of metalloporphyrins against Plasmodium falciparum

Parasitol. Res.

PEGylated peptide dendrimeric carriers for the delivery of antimalarial drug chloroquine phosphate

Pharm. Res.

Asymptomatic malaria infections: detectability, transmissibility and public health relevance

Nat. Rev Microbiol.

Side effects of chloroquine and primaquine and symptom reduction in malaria endemic area (Mâncio Lima, Acre, Brazil)

Interdiscip. Perspect. Infect. Dis.

How patients take malaria treatment: a systematic review of the literature on adherence to antimalarial drugs

PLOS ONE

The development of pyrimethamine resistance by Plasmodium falciparum

Bull. World Health Organ.

Artemether-lumefantrine combination therapy for treatment of uncomplicated malaria: the potential for complex interactions with antiretroviral drugs in HIV-infected individuals

Malaria Res. Treat.

Unique cellular interaction of silver nanoparticles: size-dependent generation of reactive oxygen species

J. Phys. Chem. B

Disruption of Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte rosettes by standard heparin and heparin devoid of anticoagulant activity

Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.

Renal clearance of quantum dots

Review
Recent advances in use of silver nanoparticles as antimalarial agents