Review
Newcastle disease: Evolution of genotypes and the related diagnostic challenges

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Abstract

Since the discovery of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) in 1926, nine genotypes of class I viruses and ten of class II have been identified, representing a diverse and continually evolving group of viruses. The emergence of new virulent genotypes from global epizootics and the year-to-year changes observed in the genomic sequence of NDV of low and high virulence implies that distinct genotypes of NDV are simultaneously evolving at different geographic locations across the globe. This vast genomic diversity may be favored by the large variety of avian species susceptible to NDV infection and by the availability of highly mobile wild bird reservoirs. The genomic diversity of NDV increases the possibility of diagnostic failures, resulting in unidentified infections. Constant epidemiological surveillance and pro-active characterization of circulating strains are needed to ensure that the immunological and PCR reagents are effective in identifying NDV circulating worldwide. For example, in the United States, the widely used real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RRT-PCR) matrix gene assay for the identification of NDV often fails to detect low virulence APMV-1 from waterfowl, while the RRT-PCR fusion gene assay, used to identify virulent isolates, often fails to detect certain virulent NDV genotypes. A new matrix-polymerase multiplex test that detects most of the viruses currently circulating worldwide and a modified fusion test for the identification of virulent pigeon viruses circulating in the U.S. and Europe have recently been developed. For newly isolated viruses with unknown sequences, recently developed random priming sequencing methods need to be incorporated into the diagnostic arsenal. In addition, the current system of classifying NDV into genotypes or lineages is inadequate. Here, we review the molecular epidemiology and recent diagnostic problems related to viral evolution of NDV and explain why a new system, based on objective criteria, is needed to categorize genotypes.

Section snippets

Newcastle disease (ND)

Newcastle disease (ND) results from infections with virulent Newcastle disease viruses (NDV), having intracerebral pathogenicity indices (ICPI) of ≥0.7 in day-old chickens (Gallus gallus) and/or having multiple basic amino acids (at least three arginine (R) or lysine (K) residues) at the C-terminus of the fusion protein cleavage site, starting at position 113, along with a phenylalanine at position 117 (OIE, 2009). NDV potentially infects most species of birds, and for susceptible poultry it is

Newcastle disease virus (NDV)

Newcastle disease virus, also known as avian paramyxovirus serotype-1 (APMV-1), a member of the genus Avulavirus within the Paramyxoviridae family (Fauquet and Fargette, 2005, Mayo, 2002), is a negative-sense, single stranded, non-segmented, enveloped RNA virus (Alexander and Senne, 2008). The NDV genome is composed of six genes and encodes their corresponding six structural proteins: nucleoprotein (NP), phosphoprotein (P), matrix (M), fusion (F), hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN), and the RNA

Newcastle disease virus classification

Different genotypes of APMV-1 circulate in different parts of the world. Although all NDV are members of APMV-1, antigenic and genetic diversity is recognized (Aldous et al., 2003, Alexander et al., 1997, Kim et al., 2007a). Two different systems of classifying NDV are currently utilized worldwide with no consensus as to which is more appropriate. A system suggested by Aldous groups NDV into six lineages and 13 sublineages and later, three additional sublineages were added (Snoeck et al., 2009,

The evolution of NDV of low virulence

Very little is known about the evolution of NDV of low virulence (loNDV) as most NDV research has been performed on virulent isolates. Globally, loNDV from all genotypes of class I and from genotypes I and II of class II are commonly isolated from domestic poultry and wild bird species (Huovilainen et al., 2001, Jorgensen et al., 1999, King and Seal, 1997, Marin et al., 1996, Rosenberger et al., 1975, Seal et al., 2005, Takakuwa et al., 1998). In the U.S., where vNDV are not endemic in poultry,

Virulent NDV and the role of ND vaccines on their evolution

Although the most likely reservoir of vNDV is the vaccinated poultry population there is evidence that wild birds may represent natural reservoirs of mesogenic viruses (Aldous et al., 2007, Czegledi et al., 2006). Phylogenetically related vNDV of genotype V have been isolated from double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) from 1975 through 2008 and they have been implicated in earlier ND outbreaks (Allison et al., 2005, Blaxland, 1951, Heckert et al., 1996). Virulent pigeon

Detection of all NDV

Newcastle disease is generally diagnosed by isolation of NDV in SPF embryonating chicken eggs (ECE), by serology using the hemagglutination-inhibition (HI) test, or by real-time RT-PCR (RRT-PCR). All NDV isolates are known to replicate in ECE and the MDT to kill the embryo varies depending on the virulence of the virus. The HI test is used to identify a virus as NDV. Monoclonal antibody (mAb) testing can further be used to characterize NDV. While no single mAb can determine the virulence of

Conclusions

Because of the highly contagious nature of NDV and its clinical similarity to highly pathogenic avian influenza, accurate monitoring and rapid diagnosis of bird infections are crucial to any control and eradication program. Active surveillance of wild birds, LBM, and poultry production sites should increase our understanding of the predominance and evolution of NDV. Although surveillance should continue in some recently found reservoirs of NDV (including waterfowl and shorebirds), the search

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