Sheep housing and welfare☆
Introduction
All livestock houses represent a compromise between cost and animal performance, defined as productivity, health and welfare (Webster, 1994). The modern housing systems, as well as the development of intensive animal production, have gained the attention of scientists on the effects of microclimate inside the animal houses, the management practices and animal welfare. In specialized dairy sheep flocks, housing systems may offer improved welfare and health of livestock by protecting animals from heat- or cold-stress and by supplying adequate feeding (Berge, 1997, Brosh et al., 1998). However, sheep are gregarious and non-aggressive animals characterized by state of fear, anxiety and frustration, caused even by simple husbandry operations and by a scarce adaptability to indoor confinement (Lynch et al., 1992, Fitzpatrick et al., 2006). In addition, published evidence proves that many factors, such as the possibility of free access to external areas (Casamassima et al., 2001), the protection from thermal extremes (Sevi et al., 2001a), the sufficient space allocation (Sevi et al., 1999), careful control of indoor climate and hygiene (Curtis, 1983, Hartung, 1994), proper ventilation and light regimes can markedly improve the health and welfare of housed sheep. The effects of sheep houses on their own environment constitute another important issue (Budisatria et al., 2007) and are outside the scope of this review.
Section snippets
Heat exposure
The thermal environment in animal houses has a direct effect on the efficiency of animal production and on the health and welfare of animals housed therein; poor building designs and inappropriate microclimates can result in thermal stress and risks to welfare (Clark and McArthur, 1994). Sheep houses should provide protection from solar radiation as a strategy to maintain productivity and welfare of animals, in particular during the hot season in the Mediterranean basin. During summer, sheep
Poor ambient hygiene
Hygiene in animal housing involves air, bedding and surface hygiene; poor housing hygiene is strictly connected with intensive systems of husbandry and is exacerbated by poor standard of management (Wathes, 1994). The concentration of airborne particulates in animal houses is inversely related to airspace (Hartung, 1989). In pigs, there is evidence of the association of insufficient air volume per animal with prevalence of lung disease (Christiaens, 1987); minimum air volume indications are
Effects of noise and light regime
The widespread uses of intensive rearing systems and the subsequent mechanization of many rearing practices have increased exposure of animals to different types of noises. Little is known about the effects of noise on the welfare of sheep; Sevi et al. (2001b) tested the effects of noises of 2 kHz and 75, 85 and 95 dB on lamb welfare and found that, apart from a moderate increase in cortisol secretions, there were no adverse effects of increasing loudness of noises on lamb performance. In
Free access to external areas
Several studies demonstrated that sheep confinement in enclosures determined the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis with an increase in cortisol secretions (Pearson and Mellor, 1976) and in the frequency of stereotypic and abnormal behaviours (Done-Currie et al., 1984). Casamassima et al. (2001) found that maintaining lactating ewes in outdoor enclosures during daytime was beneficial to their behavioural needs, stimulating exploratory and active behaviours. In addition,
Concluding remarks
Poor housing conditions have a direct effect on sheep welfare and udder health. During the hot season, shaded areas should be provided to protect lactating ewes from thermal stress, immune depression and reduction of the mammary gland defence mechanisms. Appropriate ventilation rates are necessary to reduce gaseous pollutants originating from respiratory activities of sheep and from decomposition and fermentation of the bedding, as well as to sustain ewe welfare, humoral immune responses,
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This paper is part of the special issue entitled “Current issues in Sheep Health and Welfare” guest edited by George C. Fthenakis.