Next Article in Journal
Clinical Sensitivity, Specificity and Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 Serological Testing Using the Biozek COVID-19 Test
Previous Article in Journal
Subclinical Myocardial Dysfunction in Patients with Persistent Dyspnea One Year after COVID-19
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Diagnostics
Volume 12
Issue 1
10.3390/diagnostics12010058
diagnostics-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Pulmonary Arteriovenous Pressure Gradient and Time-Averaged Mean Velocity of Small Pulmonary Arteries Can Serve as Sensitive Biomarkers in the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: A Preclinical Study by 4D-Flow MRI

by
Ali Nahardani
1,2,
Simon Leistikow
3,
Katja Grün
4,
Martin Krämer
1,
Karl-Heinz Herrmann
1,
Andrea Schrepper
5,
Christian Jung
6,
Sara Moradi
2,
Paul Christian Schulze
4,
Lars Linsen
3,
Jürgen R. Reichenbach
1,
Verena Hoerr
1,2,7,*,† and
Marcus Franz
4,†
1
Medical Physics Group, Institute of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07747 Jena, Germany
2
Heart Center Bonn, Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany
3
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Institute of Computer Science, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, 48149 Munster, Germany
4
Department of Internal Medicine I, Division of Cardiology, Angiology, Pneumology, and Intensive Medical Care, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany
5
Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany
6
Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University Hospital Düsseldorf, 40225 Dusseldorf, Germany
7
Translational Research Imaging Center (TRIC), Clinic for Radiology, University Hospital Münster, 48149 Munster, Germany
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Diagnostics 2022, 12(1), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics12010058
Submission received: 15 November 2021 / Revised: 18 December 2021 / Accepted: 21 December 2021 / Published: 28 December 2021
(This article belongs to the Section Medical Imaging and Theranostics)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
(1) Background: Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a serious condition that is associated with many cardiopulmonary diseases. Invasive right heart catheterization (RHC) is currently the only method for the definitive diagnosis and follow-up of PAH. In this study, we sought a non-invasive hemodynamic biomarker for the diagnosis of PAH. (2) Methods: We applied prospectively respiratory and cardiac gated 4D-flow MRI at a 9.4T preclinical scanner on three different groups of Sprague Dawley rats: baseline (n = 11), moderate PAH (n = 8), and severe PAH (n = 8). The pressure gradients as well as the velocity values were analyzed from 4D-flow data and correlated with lung histology. (3) Results: The pressure gradient between the pulmonary artery and vein on the unilateral side as well as the time-averaged mean velocity values of the small pulmonary arteries were capable of distinguishing not only between baseline and severe PAH, but also between the moderate and severe stages of the disease. (4) Conclusions: The current preclinical study suggests the pulmonary arteriovenous pressure gradient and the time-averaged mean velocity as potential biomarkers to diagnose PAH.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a life-threatening condition that is defined as an increase in mean pulmonary artery pressure above 20 mmHg when measured by right heart catheterization (RHC) at rest [1,2]. Clinically, pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is categorized as the first group in the PH classification, which is described in detail in the clinical guidelines of the European Society of Cardiology [1]. The clinical manifestations of PAH are often nonspecific and usually arise from right ventricular dysfunction in advanced stages [1,3]. Routine blood gas and respiratory function tests, electrocardiography (ECG), chest X-ray, as well as blood and serological tests can produce different results for a variety of conditions and indicate a number of possible underlying diseases [1,4]. Therefore, further evaluations by means of additional diagnostic tools are recommended for differential diagnosis. RHC is the diagnostic standard for the definite diagnosis of PH, the assessment of the severity of hemodynamic impairment in its course and for further follow-ups [1,5,6,7]. However, there are a variety of pitfalls when assessing and interpreting the parameters determined by RHC; for example, the measurement of the pulmonary artery wedge pressure at an over- or under-wedge position can lead to incorrect results [8]. In addition, as an invasive diagnostic tool, RHC can cause intra- or post-procedure complications, such as hematomas, pulmonary artery ruptures, or damage to the electrical conduction system of the heart [9]. Furthermore, it is contraindicated under certain circumstances such as in mechanical tricuspid or pulmonary valve replacement, right heart masses, etc. [7]. In contrast to RHC, transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is a non-invasive method that cannot directly measure pulmonary vascular resistance or any other related indices to vascular pressure, but plays an important role in assessing the likelihood of PAH, the development of right heart failure, or the necessity for catheterization in symptomatic patients [1,10]. Nuclear imaging and computed tomography techniques are also indicated in pulmonary hypertension assessments [11,12,13], but suffer from high effective dose exposures. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) can improve patient care in clinics substantially [14] as it is the gold standard for quantifying right-heart function [15,16] and is useful to PH evaluations [5,15,17]. In recent years, the development of 4D-flow CMR has opened a new direction for the qualitative and quantitative assessment of cardiovascular hemodynamics and function [18,19,20]. In previous studies, various CMR hemodynamic indices (such as peak velocity, blood flow, etc.) were compared to RHC [19,21,22]. However, none of the evaluated biomarkers correlated very strongly with the catheterization results. Among all the parameters, the most promising non-invasive hemodynamic index was the time-averaged mean velocity of the main pulmonary artery [19]. For this purpose, we evaluated this index in the small pulmonary arteries in 4D-flow and its correlation with histology to assess its suitability for diagnosing PAH. In addition, we calculated the pulmonary arteriovenous pressure gradient (i.e., the pressure gradient between the pulmonary small arteries and veins of the unilateral side) in all the experimental groups to evaluate its diagnostic utility for PAH. To confirm the influence of the experimental PAH model on heart mechanics, we calculated tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) by means of TTE and right-ventricular ejection fraction (RVEF) by using MRI. Finally, a comprehensive correlation analysis of all the CMR findings in relation to the histology results was performed.

2. Materials and Methods

  • Animal model: A total of 27 male Sprague Dawley rats (Charles River Laboratories, Sulzfeld, Germany) with an average weight of 330 ± 39.9 g were included in the study and divided into three different experimental groups: (A) Baseline (n = 11, with a nuchal subcutaneous injection of 300 µL NaCl 0.9%); (B) Severe PAH (n = 8, with a single-dose subcutaneous injection of 60 mg/kg monocrotaline—Carl Roth, Karlsruhe, Germany—dissolved in 300 µL NaCl 0.9%); and (C) Moderate PAH (n = 8, with the same medication as the severe PAH group and an additional oral application of 15 mg/kg macitentan—Actelion Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Allschwil, Switzerland—from day 14 to 28). All invasive and non-invasive diagnostic procedures were performed 4 weeks after disease induction. The general anesthesia protocol was chosen depending on the diagnostic procedure: all the non-invasive procedures were conducted under inhalation of isoflurane ~3% (due to the long tubing between the vaporizers and the MRI system) to keep the animals’ respiration in the range of 30 to 50 per minute. Perfusion was carried out under deep anesthesia with the intra-peritoneal administration of a single dose of 100 mg/kg body weight of ketamine (volume 450 µL) and 10 mg/kg body weight of xylazine (volume 250 µL). All the experiments were conducted in accordance with approved ethical guidelines (see the section on the Institutional Review Board Statement).
  • Cardiac Magnetic Resonance: Prospectively, a cardiac and respiratory triggered 4D-flow stack-of-stars phase-contrast sequence was performed on a 9.4 T BioSpec USR 94/20 imaging scanner with ParaVision 6.0.1 software (Bruker, Ettlingen, Germany). All the animals were examined by a vendor-supplied 72 mm-diameter quadrature volume resonator with the following sequence parameters. Flow encoding scheme: HADAMARD; TR = 10 ms; TE = 1.1 ms; FA = 10°; BW = 100 kHz; under-sampling factor = 1.4–1.6; averages = 1; resolution = (375 × 375 × 375) µm3; VENC = 75–200 cm/s. The data were reconstructed offline using regridding with iterative sampling density estimation. All the functional and hemodynamic parameters were quantified using manual region-of-interests (ROI). The time-averaged mean-velocities were calculated in the large (main, right and left pulmonary arteries) and small pulmonary arteries. Furthermore, the pulmonary arteriovenous pressure gradients were calculated through the use of modified Bernoulli’s equation from 4D-flow data (Figure 1). All the parameters investigated by MRI are listed in Table 1 and Table 2.
  • Transthoracic echocardiography: TTE was performed in all animals before CMR with a high-resolution ultrasound imaging system Vevo-770 (Visual Sonics, Toronto, ON, Canada) using a rodent specific 17 MHz probe. The recorded TTE movies were analyzed by an experienced cardiologist and the calculated parameter is listed in Table 2.
  • Histological assessment of lungs: The formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded, and H&E-stained lung tissue sections were evaluated by two experienced scientists. PAH-associated tissue damage of the lungs was evaluated semi-quantitatively using an established and validated sum-score system of our group [23,24]. The list of the evaluated histological indices is summarized in Table 3. According to the scoring system, atelectasis area (AA), emphysema area (EA), peribronchial artery media hypertrophy (PAMH), peribronchial artery perivascular cellular edema (PAPCE), and small artery media hypertrophy (SAMH) were evaluated and scored individually. Subsequently, all the scores were added up and summarized by an index called “Lung assessment sum-score”, or LASS, reflecting the overall pulmonary tissue changes due to PAH.
  • Statistical Analysis: The pairwise Mann–Whitney U test was performed to compare the means of various variables among the experimental groups statistically with a p-value significance threshold of 5%. In addition, the Spearman correlation (between the scalar and ordinal variables) and Pearson correlation (between two scalar variables) tests were used for correlation analysis between two different parameters (Table 4). The strength of the correlation coefficients was classified according to the following scale: very strong correlation (r = 0.90 to 1.0), strong correlation (r = 0.70 to 0.90), moderate correlation (r = 0.50 to 0.70), low and negligible correlation (r < 0.50) [25].

3. Results

  • CMR-Derived Hemodynamics: The time-averaged mean-velocities (Vmean) of the large and small pulmonary arteries were investigated in all the experimental groups. In addition, the right and left pulmonary arteriovenous pressure gradients (right: RPSA-RPV∆P-mean, left: LPSA-LPV∆P-mean) were calculated (Table 1). The Vmean-related indices in the large pulmonary arteries were only capable of distinguishing between severe PAH and baseline (p < 0.05), while the Vmean-related indices in the small pulmonary arteries were capable of differentiating not only between severe PAH and baseline, but also between the moderate and severe stages of the disease (p < 0.05). Notably, RPSA-RPV∆P-mean and LPSA-LPV∆P-mean could differentiate between baseline and severe PAH as well as the moderate and severe disease groups (p < 0.05), but with stronger statistical properties than Vmean, suggesting their suitability for the non-invasive diagnosis and follow-up of PAH.
    The qualitative assessments of the velocity-time curves in the pulmonary arteries indicated that the early and peak systolic velocities did not generally change in PAH. However, the late systolic velocities appeared more attenuated and flattened; i.e., velocity notches occurred (Figure 2, Figure 3 and Supplementary Material Video S1), which affected the Vmean values. This phenomenon was more dominant in the small pulmonary arteries compared to the large ones.
  • RVEF & TAPSE: Due to the pitfalls and difficult procedure of RHC in rats, RVEF and TAPSE were investigated by CMR and TTE to prove all the animals were influenced by PAH. RVEF could reliably differentiate all the experimental groups from each other (p < 0.05), i.e., it was largely reduced in severe PAH and preserved in the moderate stage (Table 2). TAPSE could also differentiate well between baseline and severe PAH as well as between the severe and moderate disease groups (p < 0.05) (Table 2) (Figure 4). The RVEF and TAPSE results proved the effectiveness of the experimental design.
  • Histological Assessment of Lung Tissue: In general, the animals with severe PAH demonstrated the highest individual scores in all the histological criteria except for emphysema among all the experimental groups. Therefore, severe PAH showed extensive signs of histological damage compared to baseline through significantly higher sum-scores (p < 0.05) (Figure 5). In moderate PAH, the sum-score was significantly lower compared to the severe group but still higher than the baseline (p < 0.05), reflecting a partial improvement in histological damage. With respect to the individual indices, moderate PAH showed a significant decrease for atelectasis and media hypertrophy in both the peribronchial and small pulmonary arteries compared to the animals at the severe stage of the disease (p < 0.05). However, the media hypertrophy of both arteries was still increased in severe and moderate PAH compared to baseline (p < 0.05) (Figure 5).
  • Correlation analysis between 4D-flow parameters and histopathology: In general, the correlation analysis between the Vmean-related indices and the histological results showed moderate-to-strong correlation coefficient values, while the correlation analysis between the right/left pulmonary arteriovenous pressure gradients and histological results indicated a strong-to-very-strong associativity (Table 4).

4. Discussion and Conclusions

The limitations of RHC in the diagnosis of PAH in combination with its invasiveness prompted us to investigate the potential role of new hemodynamic indices derived from 4D-flow to diagnose PAH. In current research, CMR is used to assess the response of PH to surgical or medical treatments primarily through conventional indices (e.g., right ventricular functions, right ventricular mass, main pulmonary velocities, etc.) [16]. In addition, the hemodynamic changes in the large pulmonary arteries under PH have been extensively assessed in previous studies and are well summarized by Reiter U. et al. [19]. In PAH, we observed the same findings as in the previous clinical studies [21,22,26,27,28,29,30,31], indicating that we reached the same level of accuracy. In a recent study by Cerne et al. [32], the Vmean of the main, right and left pulmonary arteries showed considerably lower values in PAH in comparison to the normal population. However, in the current study, we hypothesized that the small pulmonary arteries were more suitable regions than large vessels for the evaluation of hemodynamic changes due to their proximity to the site of media hypertrophy. In contrast to [32], we chose histology as the reference standard instead of RHC to directly evaluate the lung tissue changes in PAH, since hemodynamics alter secondary to histological changes. In addition, we minimized the time gaps between all the diagnostic procedures and kept all the study conditions constant throughout the experiment to mitigate any possible confounding factors arising in between. In our results, the Vmean of the small pulmonary arteries differentiated between the baseline, moderate, and severe PAH groups more sensitively than the Vmean of the large pulmonary arteries, suggesting its superiority as a hemodynamic index in diagnosing PAH.
In addition, the pronounced changes in the Vmean of the small pulmonary arteries in severe PAH reflected the hampered blood flow within the pulmonary circulation as a result of vascular resistance, which led to blood flow pattern changes and vortex ring formation in the large pulmonary arteries (Figure 2 and Figure 3, Supplementary Material Video S1). Vortex rings influenced the shape of the velocity–time curves and could adequately explain the formation of the velocity notches during the late systole, which was also described in [19,33]. Figure 3 and Supplementary Material Video S1 highlight an exemplary case, illustrating the effects of vortex ring formation on the velocity–time curves in the distal portion of the main pulmonary artery. The study by Reiter G. et al. [34] also reported a correlation between vortex ring formation and mean pulmonary artery pressure changes in PH, which supports our observations.
In addition to the evaluation of the Vmean in the small pulmonary arteries, we introduced the time-averaged pulmonary arteriovenous pressure gradient as a new diagnostic index. We modeled the pulmonary circulation in the lungs as a simple water stopcock system with one inlet and one outlet (i.e., the vascular stiffness of the lung was modeled as the stopcock, the pulmonary artery was the inlet, and the pulmonary vein was the outlet) and used the modified Bernoulli’s equation to roughly measure the associated pressure gradient caused by the stopcock stiffness, which was equivalent to the severity of media hypertrophy in our model of PAH. This study showed that the pulmonary arteriovenous pressure gradient was one of the most sensitive indices reflecting the severity of PAH. The correlation between this novel parameter and the lung assessment sum-score in histology was found to be very strong (more than 90%), which is superior to all the previously introduced imaging biomarkers summarized in [19].
As stated in the Materials and Methods section, the target regions of this study were the small pulmonary arteries. To meet the necessary spatial properties of such small geometries, the resolution and the measurement noise had to be increased; however, the use of the 4D-flow stack-of-stars velocity mapping technique instead of the 4D-flow Cartesian technique (which is the most frequently used sequence in preclinical CMR) could compensate for the loss of velocity-to-noise ratio and could decrease the measurement bias in these small vessels.
The major pitfall of this study was the high standard deviations in different hemodynamic indices observed in moderate PAH. A reasonable explanation could be that the response to medication was subjective and could vary among individual animals, which might have led to large standard deviations in the results of this group. One suitable remedy for this problem could be an increase in the sample size to allow more accurate statistics. In addition, we recommend a more comprehensive longitudinal study with multiple CMR scans on individual animals at multiple time points during the disease progression, instead of one single time point. Despite all these constraints, we are convinced that the results of the time-averaged pulmonary arteriovenous pressure gradient and the velocity values in the small pulmonary arteries can serve as potentially sensitive biomarkers in the diagnosis and follow-up of PAH.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/diagnostics12010058/s1. Video S1: Qualitative assessment of the velocity-time curves in the main pulmonary artery. Due to high vascular resistance in severe pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH in diseased animals), vortex rings are generated in the large pulmonary arteries producing velocity notches in the corresponding velocity-time curves. This effect was not noticed in either the baseline (normal) or in the moderate PAH (treated) animals.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: A.N., M.F. and V.H.; methodology (CMR): A.N., V.H., M.K., K.-H.H. and J.R.R.; methodology (Histology): K.G. and M.F.; methodology (TTE): M.F. and A.S.; methodology (Animal model): M.F., K.G. and C.J.; Software: A.N., S.M., M.K. and V.H.; Validation: K.G., M.F., C.J., A.N. and V.H.; Formal analysis: A.N., M.F. and V.H.; Investigation: A.N., S.L., K.G., M.K., K.-H.H., A.S., C.J., S.M., P.C.S., L.L., J.R.R., V.H. and M.F.; Resources: K.-H.H., J.R.R., M.F. and V.H.; Writing—original draft preparation: A.N. and V.H.; Writing—review and editing: J.R.R., M.F., P.C.S., A.N. and V.H.; Visualization: A.N., V.H., S.L., L.L. and S.M.; Supervision: V.H. and M.F.; Project administration: M.F. and V.H.; Funding acquisition: V.H. and M.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), Germany, FKZ 01EO1502 and the publication was funded by the Open Access Publication Fund of the University of Bonn.

Institutional Review Board Statement

All the experiments were conducted in accordance with the National Institute of Health Guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (8th edition) and the European Community Council Directive for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of 22 September 2010 (2010/63/EU). The study protocol was approved by the competent State Office of Food Safety and Consumer Protection (TLLV, Bad Langensalza, Germany; local registration number: UKJ-17-003).

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The corresponding data related to this study are available upon request.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Moritz Wildgruber for valuable discussions on the project. The macitentan was provided by Actelion Pharmaceuticals Ltd., under a material transfer agreement. The company was not involved in the study design, conduct, or interpretation. Parts of this work will be used in the doctoral thesis of Ali Nahardani.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Galiè, N.; Humbert, M.; Vachiery, J.L.; Gibbs, S.; Lang, I.; Torbicki, A.; Simonneau, G.; Peacock, A.; Vonk Noordegraaf, A.; Beghetti, M.; et al. 2015 ESC/ERS Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension: The Joint Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS): Endorsed by: Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC), International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT). Eur. Heart J. 2016, 37, 67–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Hoeper, M.M.; Bogaard, H.J.; Condliffe, R.; Frantz, R.; Khanna, D.; Kurzyna, M.; Langleben, D.; Manes, A.; Satoh, T.; Torres, F.; et al. Definitions and diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2013, 62, D42–D50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  3. Rich, J.D.; Rich, S. Clinical diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension. Circulation 2014, 130, 1820–1830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  4. Speich, R. Diagnosing pulmonary hypertension: Is there a revival of the electrocardiogram? Eur. Respir. J. 2011, 37, 994–996. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  5. Barbosa, E.J.M.; Gupta, N.K.; Torigian, D.A.; Gefter, W.B. Current Role of Imaging in the Diagnosis and Management of Pulmonary Hypertension. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2012, 198, 1320–1331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Grignola, J.C. Hemodynamic assessment of pulmonary hypertension. World J. Cardiol. 2011, 3, 10–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Rosenkranz, S.; Preston, I.R. Right heart catheterisation: Best practice and pitfalls in pulmonary hypertension. Eur. Respir. Rev. Off. J. Eur. Respir. Soc. 2015, 24, 642–652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  8. Mathier, M.A. The Nuts and Bolts of Interpreting Hemodynamics in Pulmonary Hypertension Associated With Diastolic Heart Failure. Adv. Pulm. Hypertens. 2011, 10, 33–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Hoeper, M.M.; Lee, S.H.; Voswinckel, R.; Palazzini, M.; Jais, X.; Marinelli, A.; Barst, R.J.; Ghofrani, H.A.; Jing, Z.C.; Opitz, C.; et al. Complications of right heart catheterization procedures in patients with pulmonary hypertension in experienced centers. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2006, 48, 2546–2552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Rudski, L.G.; Lai, W.W.; Afilalo, J.; Hua, L.; Handschumacher, M.D.; Chandrasekaran, K.; Solomon, S.D.; Louie, E.K.; Schiller, N.B. Guidelines for the echocardiographic assessment of the right heart in adults: A report from the American Society of Echocardiography endorsed by the European Association of Echocardiography, a registered branch of the European Society of Cardiology, and the Canadian Society of Echocardiography. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. Off. Publ. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2010, 23, 685–713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Ascha, M.; Renapurkar, R.D.; Tonelli, A.R. A review of imaging modalities in pulmonary hypertension. Ann. Thorac. Med. 2017, 12, 61–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Meng, J.J.; Zhang, L.J.; Wang, Q.; Fang, W.; Dai, H.J.; Yan, J.; Wang, T.; Yao, Z.M.; He, J.; Li, M.; et al. A comparison of ventilation/perfusion single photon emission CT and CT pulmonary angiography for diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. Chin. J. Tuberc. Respir. Dis. 2013, 36, 177–181. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  13. Tunariu, N.; Gibbs, S.J.; Win, Z.; Gin-Sing, W.; Graham, A.; Gishen, P.; Al-Nahhas, A. Ventilation-perfusion scintigraphy is more sensitive than multidetector CTPA in detecting chronic thromboembolic pulmonary disease as a treatable cause of pulmonary hypertension. J. Nucl. Med. Off. Publ. Soc. Nucl. Med. 2007, 48, 680–684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  14. Moledina, S.; Pandya, B.; Bartsota, M.; Mortensen, K.H.; McMillan, M.; Quyam, S.; Taylor, A.M.; Haworth, S.G.; Schulze-Neick, I.; Muthurangu, V. Prognostic significance of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in children with pulmonary hypertension. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2013, 6, 407–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  15. Bradlow, W.M.; Gibbs, J.S.; Mohiaddin, R.H. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in pulmonary hypertension. J. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. Off. J. Soc. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. 2012, 14, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  16. Peacock, A.J.; Vonk Noordegraaf, A. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in pulmonary arterial hypertension. Eur. Respir. Rev. Off. J. Eur. Respir. Soc. 2013, 22, 526–534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Freed, B.H.; Collins, J.D.; François, C.J.; Barker, A.J.; Cuttica, M.J.; Chesler, N.C.; Markl, M.; Shah, S.J. MR and CT Imaging for the Evaluation of Pulmonary Hypertension. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 2016, 9, 715–732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Dyverfeldt, P.; Bissell, M.; Barker, A.J.; Bolger, A.F.; Carlhäll, C.J.; Ebbers, T.; Francios, C.J.; Frydrychowicz, A.; Geiger, J.; Giese, D.; et al. 4D flow cardiovascular magnetic resonance consensus statement. J. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. Off. J. Soc. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. 2015, 17, 72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Reiter, U.; Reiter, G.; Fuchsjäger, M. MR phase-contrast imaging in pulmonary hypertension. Br. J. Radiol. 2016, 89, 20150995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Roldán-Alzate, A.; Frydrychowicz, A.; Johnson, K.M.; Kellihan, H.; Chesler, N.C.; Wieben, O.; François, C.J. Non-invasive assessment of cardiac function and pulmonary vascular resistance in an canine model of acute thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension using 4D flow cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. Off. J. Soc. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. 2014, 16, 23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  21. García-Alvarez, A.; Fernández-Friera, L.; Mirelis, J.G.; Sawit, S.; Nair, A.; Kallman, J.; Fuster, V.; Sanz, J. Non-invasive estimation of pulmonary vascular resistance with cardiac magnetic resonance. Eur. Heart J. 2011, 32, 2438–2445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  22. Sanz, J.; Kuschnir, P.; Rius, T.; Salguero, R.; Sulica, R.; Einstein, A.J.; Dellegrottaglie, S.; Fuster, V.; Rajagopalan, S.; Poon, M. Pulmonary arterial hypertension: Noninvasive detection with phase-contrast MR imaging. Radiology 2007, 243, 70–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Franz, M.; Grün, K.; Betge, S.; Rohm, I.; Ndongson-Dongmo, B.; Bauer, R.; Schulze, P.C.; Lichtenauer, M.; Petersen, I.; Neri, D.; et al. Lung tissue remodelling in MCT-induced pulmonary hypertension: A proposal for a novel scoring system and changes in extracellular matrix and fibrosis associated gene expression. Oncotarget 2016, 7, 81241–81254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  24. Rohm, I.; Grün, K.; Müller, L.M.; Bäz, L.; Förster, M.; Schrepper, A.; Kretzschmar, D.; Pistulli, R.; Yilmaz, A.; Bauer, R.; et al. Cellular inflammation in pulmonary hypertension: Detailed analysis of lung and right ventricular tissue, circulating immune cells and effects of a dual endothelin receptor antagonist. Clin. Hemorheol. Microcirc. 2019, 73, 497–522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Mukaka, M.M. Statistics corner: A guide to appropriate use of correlation coefficient in medical research. Malawi Med. J. 2012, 24, 69–71. [Google Scholar]
  26. Guo, X.; Liu, M.; Ma, Z.; Wang, S.; Yang, Y.; Zhai, Z.; Wang, C.; Zhai, R. Flow characteristics of the proximal pulmonary arteries and vena cava in patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: Correlation between 3.0 T phase-contrast MRI and right heart catheterization. Diagn. Interv. Radiol. 2014, 20, 414–420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  27. Helderman, F.; Mauritz, G.J.; Andringa, K.E.; Vonk-Noordegraaf, A.; Marcus, J.T. Early onset of retrograde flow in the main pulmonary artery is a characteristic of pulmonary arterial hypertension. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging JMRI 2011, 33, 1362–1368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Ley, S.; Fink, C.; Risse, F.; Ehlken, N.; Fischer, C.; Ley-Zaporozhan, J.; Kauczor, H.U.; Klose, H.; Gruenig, E. Magnetic resonance imaging to assess the effect of exercise training on pulmonary perfusion and blood flow in patients with pulmonary hypertension. Eur. Radiol. 2013, 23, 324–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Moral, S.; Fernández-Friera, L.; Stevens, G.; Guzman, G.; García-Alvarez, A.; Nair, A.; Evangelista, A.; Fuster, V.; Garcia, M.J.; Sanz, J. New index α improves detection of pulmonary hypertension in comparison with other cardiac magnetic resonance indices. Int. J. Cardiol. 2012, 161, 25–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Swift, A.J.; Rajaram, S.; Condliffe, R.; Capener, D.; Hurdman, J.; Elliot, C.A.; Wild, J.M.; Kiely, D.G. Diagnostic accuracy of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging of right ventricular morphology and function in the assessment of suspected pulmonary hypertension results from the ASPIRE registry. J. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. Off. J. Soc. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. 2012, 14, 40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. Truong, U.; Fonseca, B.; Dunning, J.; Burgett, S.; Lanning, C.; Ivy, D.D.; Shandas, R.; Hunter, K.; Barker, A.J. Wall shear stress measured by phase contrast cardiovascular magnetic resonance in children and adolescents with pulmonary arterial hypertension. J. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. Off. J. Soc. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. 2013, 15, 81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  32. Cerne, J.W.; Pathrose, A.; Gordon, D.Z.; Sarnari, R.; Veer, M.; Blaisdell, J.; Allen, B.D.; Avery, R.; Markl, M.; Ragin, A.; et al. Evaluation of Pulmonary Hypertension Using 4D Flow MRI. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Kjellström, B.; Lindholm, A.; Ostenfeld, E. Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: Ready for Clinical Practice and Guidelines? Curr. Heart Fail. Rep. 2020, 17, 181–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Reiter, G.; Reiter, U.; Kovacs, G.; Olschewski, H.; Fuchsjäger, M. Blood flow vortices along the main pulmonary artery measured with MR imaging for diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension. Radiology 2015, 275, 71–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
Diagnostics 12 00058 g001 550
Figure 1. A schematic representation showing the region of interests (ROI) for the calculation of pulmonary arteriovenous pressure gradients and pulmonary small arteries’ time-averaged mean velocities. The green label in (A) shows ROI on a small pulmonary artery, and in (B) depicts ROI on the ipsilateral pulmonary vein (Annotations: (1) left superior vena cava (2) right superior vena cava (3) right pulmonary artery along its small branch (4) inferior vena cava (5) right ventricle (6) right atrium (7) aorta (8) left atrium (9) pulmonary veins).
Figure 1. A schematic representation showing the region of interests (ROI) for the calculation of pulmonary arteriovenous pressure gradients and pulmonary small arteries’ time-averaged mean velocities. The green label in (A) shows ROI on a small pulmonary artery, and in (B) depicts ROI on the ipsilateral pulmonary vein (Annotations: (1) left superior vena cava (2) right superior vena cava (3) right pulmonary artery along its small branch (4) inferior vena cava (5) right ventricle (6) right atrium (7) aorta (8) left atrium (9) pulmonary veins).
Diagnostics 12 00058 g001
Diagnostics 12 00058 g002 550
Figure 2. (A–C) Intra- and (D) inter-experimental group variability assessment of the velocity-time curve through a cross-section drawn in the distal portion of the main pulmonary artery, i.e., proximal to the pulmonary bifurcation. Notches are indicated by red arrows. Each cardiac frame corresponds to a temporal resolution of 10 ms.
Figure 2. (A–C) Intra- and (D) inter-experimental group variability assessment of the velocity-time curve through a cross-section drawn in the distal portion of the main pulmonary artery, i.e., proximal to the pulmonary bifurcation. Notches are indicated by red arrows. Each cardiac frame corresponds to a temporal resolution of 10 ms.
Diagnostics 12 00058 g002
Diagnostics 12 00058 g003 550
Figure 3. Representative streamline reconstructions of baseline, moderate, and severe pulmonary arterial hypertension in an animal model (top row) with corresponding velocity changes over time, averaged across the green cross-section in the distal MPA (bottom row). The vortical flow pattern formation and its effect on the corresponding velocity-time curve can be observed in this example in the green cross-section area.
Figure 3. Representative streamline reconstructions of baseline, moderate, and severe pulmonary arterial hypertension in an animal model (top row) with corresponding velocity changes over time, averaged across the green cross-section in the distal MPA (bottom row). The vortical flow pattern formation and its effect on the corresponding velocity-time curve can be observed in this example in the green cross-section area.
Diagnostics 12 00058 g003
Diagnostics 12 00058 g004 550
Figure 4. Representative transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) images showing the tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) in baseline, moderate, and severe pulmonary arterial hypertension.
Figure 4. Representative transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) images showing the tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) in baseline, moderate, and severe pulmonary arterial hypertension.
Diagnostics 12 00058 g004
Diagnostics 12 00058 g005 550
Figure 5. Representative images of histological changes in the lung tissue of baseline, moderate, and severe pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) with a focus on media hypertrophy of peribronchial (black arrows) and small arteries (black arrowheads) at a 20× magnification, as well as a graphical comparison between histological sum-score changes between all three experimental groups (* indicates statistical significance, with p < 0.05).
Figure 5. Representative images of histological changes in the lung tissue of baseline, moderate, and severe pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) with a focus on media hypertrophy of peribronchial (black arrows) and small arteries (black arrowheads) at a 20× magnification, as well as a graphical comparison between histological sum-score changes between all three experimental groups (* indicates statistical significance, with p < 0.05).
Diagnostics 12 00058 g005
Table
Table 1. Results for CMR-derived hemodynamic parameters in the three experimental groups.
Table 1. Results for CMR-derived hemodynamic parameters in the three experimental groups.
MRI-Derived IndexAbb.UnitSig.
(p < 0.05)		Group (Mean ± Standard Deviation)
BaselineSevereModerate
Main pulmonary artery averaged velocityMPAV-meancm·s−1130.43 ± 7.9012.18 ± 4.3222.28 ± 11.41
Right pulmonary artery averaged velocityRPAV-meancm·s−1123.15 ± 4.9713.78 ± 7.2419.15 ± 10.78
Left pulmonary artery averaged velocityLPAV-meancm·s−1122.65 ± 6.9412.77 ± 2.2320.44 ± 8.11
Right pulmonary small artery averaged velocityRPSAV-meancm·s−1118.40 ± 3.727.43 ± 3.4014.36 ± 7.62
Left pulmonary small artery averaged velocityLPSAV-meancm·s−11, 322.57 ± 4.667.47 ± 4.0716.16 ± 8.50
Right pulmonary arteriovenous averaged pressureRPSA-RPV∆P-meanmmHg1, 30.12 ± 0.060.018 ± 0.020.093 ± 0.095
Left pulmonary arteriovenous averaged pressure gradientLPSA-LPV∆P-meanmmHg1, 30.19 ± 0.090.02 ± 0.020.11 ± 0.14
1, Two independent Mann–Whitney U tests between baseline and severe groups were significant (p < 0.05). 2, Two independent Mann–Whitney U tests between baseline and moderate groups was significant (p < 0.05). 3, Two independent Mann–Whitney U tests between severe and moderate groups were significant (p < 0.05).
Table
Table 2. Results for different right heart functional indices derived from CMR and TTE in the three experimental groups.
Table 2. Results for different right heart functional indices derived from CMR and TTE in the three experimental groups.
Functional IndexAbb.UnitSig.
(p < 0.05)		Group (Mean ± Standard Deviation)
BaselineSevereModerate
CMR: Right ventricle ejection fraction RVEF%1, 2, 356.27 ± 3.6717.97 ± 2.3138.75 ± 10.42
TTE: Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion TAPSEmm1, 22.73 ± 0.641.03 ±0.171.27 ± 0.45
1, Two independent Mann–Whitney U tests between baseline and severe groups were significant (p < 0.05). 2, Two independent Mann–Whitney U tests between baseline and moderate groups were significant (p < 0.05). 3, Two independent Mann–Whitney U tests between severe and moderate groups were significant (p < 0.05).
Table
Table 3. Results for pulmonary histological indices in the three experimental groups.
Table 3. Results for pulmonary histological indices in the three experimental groups.
Pulmonary Histopathology IndexAbb.Sig. (p < 0.05)Group (Mean ± Standard Deviation)
BaselineSevereModerate
Atelectasis area AA1, 30.80 ± 0.441.67 ± 0.511.00 ± 0.00
Emphysema areaEA20.20 ± 0.4470.67 ± 0.511.25 ± 0.50
Peribronchial artery media hypertrophy PAMH1, 2, 30.40 ± 0.542.83 ± 0.4082.00 ± 0.00
Peribronchial artery perivascular cellular edema PAPCE10.00 ± 0.001.67 ± 0.8161.00 ± 1.15
Small artery media hypertrophy SAMH1, 2, 30.00 ± 0.002.83 ± 0.402.00 ± 0.00
Lung assessment sum score LASS1, 2, 31.40 ± 1.149.67 ± 0.817.25 ± 1.50
1, Two independent Mann–Whitney U tests between baseline and severe groups were significant (p < 0.05). 2, Two independent Mann–Whitney U tests between baseline and moderate groups were significant (p < 0.05). 3, Two independent Mann–Whitney U tests between severe and moderate groups were significant (p < 0.05).
Table
Table 4. Results of the inter-parameter correlation analysis.
Table 4. Results of the inter-parameter correlation analysis.
MRI IndexCorr. IndexAAEAPAMHPAPCESAMHLASS
MPAV-mean−0.537−0.421−0.754−0.866−0.708−0.829
RPAV-mean−0.342−0.383−0.495−0.619−0.550−0.613
LPAV-mean−0.537−0.163−0.723−0.743−0.682−0.817
RPSAV-mean−0.220−0.529−0.761−0.725−0.816−0.819
LPSAV-mean−0.342−0.565−0.827−0.785−0.892−0.925
RPSA-RPV∆P-mean−0.416−0.566−0.792−0.662−0.854−0.868
LPSA-LPV∆P-mean−0.390−0.526−0.851−0.742−0.917−0.915
Red: Very strong correlation (r = 0.90 to 1.0); Yellow: Strong correlation (r = 0.70 to 0.90); Green: Moderate correlation (r = 0.50 to 0.70); Blue: weak and negligible correlation (r < 0.50). (MPAV-mean: Main pulmonary artery averaged velocity; RPAV-mean: Right pulmonary artery averaged velocity; LPAV-mean: Left pulmonary artery averaged velocity; RPSAV-mean: Right pulmonary small artery averaged velocity; LPSAV-mean: Left pulmonary small artery averaged velocity; RPSA-RPV∆P-mean: Right pulmonary arteriovenous averaged pressure gradient; LPSA-LPV∆P-mean: Left pulmonary arteriovenous averaged pressure gradient).
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Nahardani, A.; Leistikow, S.; Grün, K.; Krämer, M.; Herrmann, K.-H.; Schrepper, A.; Jung, C.; Moradi, S.; Schulze, P.C.; Linsen, L.; et al. Pulmonary Arteriovenous Pressure Gradient and Time-Averaged Mean Velocity of Small Pulmonary Arteries Can Serve as Sensitive Biomarkers in the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: A Preclinical Study by 4D-Flow MRI. Diagnostics 2022, 12, 58. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics12010058

AMA Style

Nahardani A, Leistikow S, Grün K, Krämer M, Herrmann K-H, Schrepper A, Jung C, Moradi S, Schulze PC, Linsen L, et al. Pulmonary Arteriovenous Pressure Gradient and Time-Averaged Mean Velocity of Small Pulmonary Arteries Can Serve as Sensitive Biomarkers in the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: A Preclinical Study by 4D-Flow MRI. Diagnostics. 2022; 12(1):58. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics12010058

Chicago/Turabian Style

Nahardani, Ali, Simon Leistikow, Katja Grün, Martin Krämer, Karl-Heinz Herrmann, Andrea Schrepper, Christian Jung, Sara Moradi, Paul Christian Schulze, Lars Linsen, and et al. 2022. "Pulmonary Arteriovenous Pressure Gradient and Time-Averaged Mean Velocity of Small Pulmonary Arteries Can Serve as Sensitive Biomarkers in the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: A Preclinical Study by 4D-Flow MRI" Diagnostics 12, no. 1: 58. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics12010058

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop