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Environmental Pollution Originated by the Excessive Use of Agrochemicals in the Production of Granadilla (Passiflora ligularis) Oxapampa District, Pasco, Perú
Written By
Benito Buendía Quispe and Raymundo Erazo Erazo
Submitted: 01 February 2022Reviewed: 12 April 2022Published: 17 May 2022
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The purpose of this research was to evaluate the environmental pollution originated by the excessive use of agrochemicals in the production of granadilla (Passiflora ligularis) in the Oxapampa district, Pasco – Peru. The crops of this fruit were chosen in the sectors named: Abra (Ab), Chacos (Ch), Quillazú (Qll), Acuzazú (Ac), Cañera (Ca), San Alberto (SA), Alto Río Pisco (ARP), and Paradise (Pa), where applying the nonexperimental and comparative design, the soil, water, and fruit samples were taken, which were analyzed in the specialized laboratory of the Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos (UNMSM). A survey was also carried out by the farmers to form groups (ABC), and the results obtained were statistically analyzed by means of the comparative difference of concentration of heavy metals in three groups selected according to intensity of use of agrochemicals, which were between 0.26 and 0.36 mg of Cu/kg of fruit, between 0.001 and 0.003 mg of Cd and Pb/kg of fruit, between 0.0012 and 0.0006 mg As and Hg/kg of fruit, between 19 and 25 mg of Cu/kg of soil, between 0.02 and 0.08 mg of Cd and Pb/kg of soil, between 0.05 and 0.08 mg of As and Hg/kg of soil; between 1 and 1.12 mg of Cu/l of water, between 0.002 and 0.003 mg of Cd and Pb/l of water, between 0.002 and 0.005 mg of As and Hg/l of water; being observed high averages in some heavy metals and whose comparisons were not significant for As, Hg, Pb, Cd, Cu in fruits, soil, and water, and significant only the Cd in fruits and Hg in soils, concluding that there is a potential risk of toxicity due to ingestion of granadilla (P. ligularis).
Daniel Alcides Carrión National University (UNDAC), Perú
Raymundo Erazo Erazo*
Major National University of San Marcos (UNMSM), Perú
*Address all correspondence to: rerazoe@unmsm.edu.pe
1. Introduction
In the agricultural fields of some sectors of the district of Oxapampa, it has been detected that farmers are applying agrochemicals in excess during the production process of granadilla fruit (Passiflora ligularis), generating environmental contamination, which must be evaluated and made known community-wide to take corrective measures regarding the concentration of possible heavy metals that would be found in the soil, runoff water from rainfall, and fruits. Everyone’s concern is to contribute to the knowledge of environmental contamination in the agricultural sectors. The most important environmental and social consequences of the use of agrochemicals are: persistence of the agrochemical, bioaccumulation, soil and water pollution by agrochemical residues [1].
Under this evidence found in the agricultural activity, human health is put at risk due to the consumption of fruits contaminated with toxic residues of heavy metals. Pesticides cause damage to the environment, to the cultivation soil, and to the water so it is inadmissible that the same practices continue to be carried out in agricultural management [2]. One of the main characteristics of heavy metals is their level of toxicity according to their concentration in the habitat they are found. This has been the subject of many studies in order to evaluate the mechanisms involved in their toxicity and their harmful effects on human beings. For example, mercury is one of the environmental contaminants with the greatest negative impact [3].
There are studies in many countries of the world on the negative effects caused by agrochemicals. They report that vegetable species presented concentrations of lead and arsenic that did not exceed the reference regulations; however, in the case of medicinal plants, arsenic was found in 0.2 mg/kg, so it is recommended that it is necessary to monitor whether the content of this heavy metal is due to the use of chemical substances in soil where it was cultivated [4]. Studies carried out on samples of Tessaria integrifolia leaves from Trujillo, La Libertad, found concentrations of lead at 2.022 mg/kg, cadmium at 0.155 mg/kg, mercury at 0.073 mg/kg, and arsenic at 0.308645 mg/kg [5]. This is evidence that contamination exists in different places and under different conditions.
The purpose of the research was to determine the comparative difference in concentration of heavy metals between the sampling groups according to the intensity of application of agrochemicals during the agricultural management of the granadilla fruit crop, so it raises the hypothesis that “the different agrochemical application intensities during the management of the granadilla (P. ligularis) crop in three sampling groups (A, B and C), generate significant differences in the content of heavy metals in the fruit, soil and runoff water, in the district of Oxapampa.”
For this, surveys were planned and carried out among the farmers to select according to the frequency of application of agrochemicals the sample size of the geographical area that was 55 Ha in full production of granadilla, from where soil, runoff water, and fruit samples were taken, based on the protocols defined by the Chemical Analysis Laboratory (USAQ) of the Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering of the National University of San Marcos (UNMSM) Lima, Peru, and for the chemical analysis of heavy metals, an atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used.
Codes were defined (see appendices) that identify the origin of the different samples, achieving the study of three groups of farmers who apply agrochemicals in the granadilla fruit production process at different frequencies in various sectors.
The research carried out, due to its purpose, falls within the type of basic research, since it was analyzed what metallic elements the fruits, soil, and runoff water contain in the granadilla fruit production process. On the other hand, social information is obtained that allows determining the cause of contamination under three dimensions of groups selected according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals, which is considered as a process of environmental contamination by human intervention (anthropic) and, likewise, allows to determine how the soil-water interaction influences the contamination of granadilla fruit [6].
2.1.1 Population and sample
The population was of the finite type that was made up of all granadilla fruit crop fields (P. ligularis) in full production in the district of Oxapampa, with 1463 Ha [7].
The sample size consisted of 55 Ha of granadilla fruit in production and was determined using the following equation:
n=Z2pqNE2N−1+Z2pqE1
Where: Z = 1.65, P = 0.70, q = 0.30, N = 1463 y E = 0.10.
From the 55 Ha of granadilla fruit crop in full production, corresponding to several owners with diverse extensions of granadilla fruit crop, they were geographically distributed in rural sectors within the district of Oxapampa, such as: Alto Rio Pisco, Cañera, Abra, Chacos, San Alberto, Acuzazú, Quillazú, Paradise.
The production fields were taken randomly in each sector, then a survey was carried out on each owner (farmer) through a questionnaire, information was collected on the surface of their granadilla fruit production fields, types of agrochemicals that are generally used, and with what frequency they are applied during the year of crop management. Three groups were then selected and formed according to the intensity of agrochemicals application per year. Group “A” includes those who apply agrochemicals with high frequency; group “B,” with medium frequency; and group “C,” with low frequency.
From these groups, samples were taken in different sectors already classified and duly coded for each production area. Fruit sampling was randomly selected, taking six fruits/sample; in the same way, soil samples were extracted from the field, also at random points, following a zigzag scheme at a depth of 20 cm, homogenizing the subsamples and obtaining a single representative sample in the amount of 0.5 kg. Runoff water samples were also taken from the production fields in an amount of 1 liter/sample; for this last case, it was necessary to previously prepare collectors, which were holes prepared on the ground surfaces covered at the base or bottom with plastic to ensure the accumulation of runoff water on rainy days, distributed at various points in the study area.
The period of extraction and transport of the samples from the field to the laboratory was 2 days. Water was collected in a white polyethylene bottle with a capacity of 1 liter as a representative sample; the fruit and soil samples were collected in hermetic polyethylene bags for the appropriate capacity. All the collected samples, 15 fruit samples, 15 soil samples, and 15 water samples were transported from the study fields to the UNMSM laboratory, following strict quality control, for the corresponding analyses.
2.1.2 Design of the investigation
Due to the nature of the research, the nonexperimental and comparative design was applied; defined as a schematized structure, which consists of determining the significance between two or more variables of interest in one or more samples, comparing the observations obtained and analyzing the inferences between two or more different populations, the scheme of which is as follows (see Figure 1):
Figure 1.
Scheme of the research design derived from reference [6]. Where: MA1 = Sample of areas with low pesticide application. MB2 = Sample of areas with medium pesticide application. MC3 = Sample of areas with high pesticide application. Oi-3a = Observation of metal variables in contaminated water. Oi-3s = Observation of metal variables in contaminated soil. Oi-3f = Observation of metal variables in contaminated granadilla fruits. R = relationship between variables (Oi-3a – Oi-3f) and (Oi-3s – Oi-3f). =, ≠: comparisons between samples of the variables between three different populations (a = water, s = soil, f = fruits).
The techniques used during the investigation were: identification, observation, data collection, and samples in field and laboratory phases. For the social component, the interview and dialogue technique was used. For the assessment of heavy metals: As, Pb, Hg, Cd, and Cu present in the samples, an atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used, and the results were measured in mg of contaminant/kg of sample.
The instruments used in the research were: predesigned formats and questionnaires, to record the data obtained during the evaluation process. The questionnaire for the interview was validated with professionals and research experts in the social area, using the DELPHI method, which is a method of structuring a communication process that is effective in allowing a group of individuals, such as a whole in dealing with a complex [8].
The data obtained in the study area were processed in the cabinet, SPSS and Excel software were used, descriptive and inferential statistics, ANOVA for the comparison between sectors comprising three ABC groups, the analysis was carried out based on the processing and interpretation of the data.
2.2 Results
The results of the environmental pollutants analysis in the laboratory of the samples of fruits, soil, and runoff water show that, with respect to the fruits: in the sectors of AcAf SA1Bf, PaCf, average values between 0.26 and 0.36 mg of Cu/kg of sample; (Ch2Af, Ab3Bf ARP3Cf, QllAf, Ch3Bf, SA2Cf) average values between 0.001 and 0.003 mg of Cd and Pb/kg; (Ab1Af, CaBf, ARP1Cf, Ch1Af, Ab2Bf, ARP2Cf) average values between 0.0012 and 0.0006 mg of As and Hg/kg. Soils: in the sectors of (AcAs SA1Bs, PaCs) average values between 19 and 25 mg of Cu/kg; (Ch2As, Ab3Bs ARP3Cs, QllAs, Ch3Bs, SA2Cs) average values between 0.02 and 0.08 mg of Cd and Pb/kg; (Ab1As, CaBs, ARP1Cs, Ch1As, Ab2Bs, ARP2Cs) average values between 0.05 and 0.08 mg of As and Hg/kg. Runoff water: (AcAa SA1Ba, PaCa) average values between 1 and 1.12 mg of Cu/kg; (Ch2Aa, Ab3Ba ARP3Ca, QllAa, Ch3Ba, SA2Ca) average values between 0.002 and 0.003 mg of Cd and Pb/kg; (Ab1Aa, CaBa, ARP1Ca, Ch1Aa, Ab2Ba, ARP2Ca) average values between 0.002 and 0.005 mg of As and Hg/kg.
High values were found in the average content of arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium, and copper, which constitute a risk to human health. However, through ANOVA, it was found that there is no significance for the comparison of concentration of heavy metals for As, Hg, Pb, and Cu in the fruit, and it was significant for Cd. In the case of the comparison of concentration of metals As, Pb, Cd, and Cu in the soil, it was not significant, and for Hg it was significant. The comparison of the concentration of heavy metals in the runoff water was not significant for the metals As, Hg. Pb, Cd, and Cu. This corresponds to a reality observed in the study area in the granadilla fruit production systems and is dependent on chemical inputs with inappropriate management for the farmers and coupled with this the minimum commitment by the institutions to the respective control.
The following figures show average content of heavy metals in fruits, soil, and runoff water of the granadilla crop (Passiflora ligularis).
Figure 2 shows that in the sectors of Abra, Chacos, Quillazú, and Acuzazú, belonging to group A; in the Cañera, the Abra, Chacos, and San Alberto sectors, for group B and from the Alto Río Pisco, San Alberto, and El Paraíso sectors for group C, which are within the jurisdiction of the Oxapampa district, were found fruits with high average values of arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium, and copper content. Thus, in the sectors of (AcAf SA1Bf, PaCf), they have averages between 0.26 and 0.36 mg of Cu/kg. Other samples taken in the sectors such as Ch2Af, Ab3Bf ARP3Cf, QllAf, Ch3Bf, SA2Cf have averages between 0.001 and 0.003 mg of Cd and Pb/kg and in the sectors of Ab1Af, CaBf, ARP1Cf, Ch1Af, Ab2Bf, ARP2Cf, they have averages between 0.0012 and 0.0006 mg of As and Hg/kg.
Figure 2.
Average content of heavy metals in granadilla fruit (Passiflora ligularis) fruits in mg of contaminant/kg of sample.
From Figure 3 it can be seen that in the sectors of Abra, Chacos, Quillazú, and Acuzazú, for group A; from the Cañera, El Abra, Chacos, and San Alberto sectors, for group B and from the Alto Río Pisco, San Alberto, and El Paraíso sectors for group C, which are within the jurisdiction of the Oxapampa district, were found soils with average values of arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium, and copper high content. Thus, in the sectors of AcAs SA1Bs, PaCs, have averages between 19 and 25 mg of Cu/kg. Other samples taken in the sectors such as Ch2As, Ab3Bs ARP3Cs, QllAs, Ch3Bs, SA2Cs have averages between 0.02 and 0.08 mg of Cd and Pb/kg, the sectors of Ab1As, CaBs, ARP1Cs, Ch1As, Ab2Bs, ARP2Cs have averages between 0.05 and 0.08 mg of As and Hg/kg.
Figure 3.
Average content of heavy metals in granadilla fruit (Passiflora ligularis) crop soils in mg of contaminant/kg of sample.
Figure 4.
Average content of heavy metals in the runoff water of the granadilla fruit crop (Passiflora ligularis) in mg of contaminant/kg of sample.
In the samples of runoff water extracted from the fields of fruit-producing granadilla sectors, such as Abra, Chacos, Quillazú, and Acuzazú, for group A; from the Cañera, El Abra, Chacos, and San Alberto sectors, for group B; and from the Alto Río Pisco, San Alberto, and El Paraíso sectors for group C, which are within the jurisdiction of the Oxapampa district, high values of average content were found of arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium, and copper. Thus, in the sectors of AcAa SA1Ba, PaCa, they have averages between 1 and 1.12 mg of Cu/kg. Other samples taken in the sectors such as Ch2Aa, Ab3Ba ARP3Ca, QllAa, Ch3Ba, SA2Ca have averages between 0.002 and 0.003 mg of Cd and Pb/kg, and the sectors of Ab1Aa, CaBa, ARP1Ca, Ch1Aa, Ab2Ba, ARP2Ca have averages between 0.002 and 0.005 mg of As and Hg/kg, (see Figure 4).
A statistical analysis was carried considering the different intensities of application of agrochemicals during the management of the granadilla (P. ligularis) crop in three sampling groups and considering that there are significant differences in the content of heavy metals in the fruit, soil, and runoff water in the Oxapampa district.
2.2.1 Analysis of results in relation to the concentration of arsenic and mercury in the fruits (mg/kg)
Ho: There are no differences in As and Hg between sampling groups.
H1: There are differences in As and Hg between sampling groups.
In the ANOVA, it is observed that the significance values are 0.062 (As) and 0.626 (Hg), a result that is obtained when comparing the selected groups A, B, and C, respectively, according to the heavy metal of arsenic and mercury and according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals. Said value is greater than the significance of α = 0.05; therefore, the statistical decision in this regard is to accept the null hypothesis; consequently, the alternative hypothesis is rejected, concluding that here there is enough evidence to affirm that there are no significant differences in the concentration of arsenic and mercury in the fruits at different intensity of application of agrochemicals with a confidence level of 95% (see Table 1).
Variation Source
SC
gl
CMe
F
Sig.
As
Hg
As
Hg
Between groups (ABC)
0.000
2
0.000
3545
0.488
0.062
0.626
within groups
0.000
12
0.000
Total
0.000
14
Table 1.
ANOVA of comparison between groups of concentration of arsenic and mercury in granadilla fruits (Passiflora ligularis), according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals.
Source: Data processed from chemical analysis Laboratory UNMSM 2019.
2.2.2 Analysis of results in relation to the concentration of lead and cadmium in fruits (mg/kg)
In Table 2, it is observed from ANOVA that the significance values are 0.475 (Pb) and 0.042 (Cd), a result obtained from comparing selected groups A, B, and C, respectively, according to the heavy metals of lead and cadmium, according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals. Said value with respect to Pb is greater than the significance of α = 0.05; therefore, the statistical decision in this regard is to accept the null hypothesis; consequently, the alternative hypothesis is rejected. However, the value with respect to cadmium is less than the significance of α = 0.05; the alternative hypothesis is accepted and the null one is rejected, concluding that there is sufficient evidence that affirms the existence or not of significant differences in the concentration of lead and cadmium in fruits at different intensity of application of agrochemicals with a confidence level of 95%.
Variation Source
SC
gl
CMe
F
Sig.
Pb
Cd
Pb
Cd
Between groups (ABC)
0.000
2
0.000
0.792
4174
0.475
0.042
within groups
0.000
12
0.000
Total
0.000
14
Table 2.
ANOVA of comparison between groups of concentration of lead and cadmium in granadilla fruits (Passiflora ligularis), according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals.
Source: Data processed from chemical analysis Laboratory UNMSM 2019.
Ho: There are no differences in Pb and Cd between sampling groups.
H1: There are differences in Pb and Cd between sampling groups.
2.2.3 Analysis of results in relation to the concentration of copper in fruits (mg/kg)
Ho: There are no differences in Cu between sampling groups.
H1: There are differences in Cu between sampling groups.
In the ANOVA, it is observed that the significance value is 0.371, a result that is obtained from comparing selected groups A, B, and C, respectively, in accordance with the heavy metal of copper according to intensity of use of agrochemicals. Said value is greater than the significance of α = 0.05; therefore, the statistical decision in this regard is to accept the null hypothesis; consequently, the alternative hypothesis is rejected, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to affirm that there are no significant differences in copper concentration in fruits at different intensity of application of agrochemicals with a confidence level of 95% (see Table 3).
Variation Source
Sum of squares
gl
Root mean square
F
Sig.
Between groups
0.028
2
0.014
1077
0.371
within groups
0.156
12
0.013
Total
0.184
14
Table 3.
ANOVA of comparison between groups of copper concentration in passion fruit (Passiflora ligularis), according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals.
Source: Data processed from chemical analysis Laboratory UNMSM 2019.
2.2.4 Analysis of results in relation to the content of arsenic and lead in the soil (mg/kg)
Ho: There are no differences in As and Pb between sampling groups.
H1: There are differences in As and Pb between sampling groups.
In the ANOVA, the significance values are of 0.863 (As) and 0.579 (Pb), results obtained from comparing selected groups A, B, and C, respectively, according to the heavy metal content of arsenic and lead in the soil from the fields of granadilla fruit production (P. ligularis) according to intensity of use of agrochemicals. These values are greater than the significance of α = 0.05; therefore the statistical decision in this regard is to accept the null hypothesis; consequently, the alternative hypothesis is rejected. In this way, it is concluded that there is sufficient evidence to affirm that there are no significant differences in the content of arsenic and lead in the soil samples at different intensity of application of agrochemicals at a confidence level of 95% (see Table 4).
Variation Source
SC
gl
CMe
F
Sig.
As
Pb
As
Pb
Between groups (ABC)
0.000
2
0.000
0.149
0.571
0.863
0.579
within groups
0.000
12
0.000
Total
0.000
14
Table 4.
ANOVA of comparison between groups of arsenic and lead content in the soil of the granadilla fruit crop (Passiflora ligularis), according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals.
Source: Data processed from chemical analysis Laboratory UNMSM 2019.
2.2.5 Analysis of results in relation to the mercury content in the soil (mg/kg)
Ho: There are no differences in Hg between sampling groups.
H1: There are differences in Hg between sampling groups.
From the ANOVA analysis, the significance value is 0.012, whose result has been obtained after comparing between selected groups A, B, and C, respectively, in accordance with the heavy metal content of mercury in the soil from the granadilla fruit production fields (P. ligularis) according to intensity of use of agrochemicals. As can be seen, such value is less than the significance of α = 0.05; therefore the statistical decision in this regard is to reject the null hypothesis; consequently, the alternative hypothesis is accepted. In this way, it is concluded that there is sufficient evidence to affirm that there are significant differences in mercury content in the soil samples at different intensity of application of agrochemicals at a confidence level of 95% (see Table 5).
Variation Source
Sum of squares
gl
Root mean square
F
Sig.
Between groups
0.003
2
0.001
6576
0.012
within groups
0.003
12
0.000
Total
0.006
14
Table 5.
ANOVA of comparison between groups of mercury content in the soil of the granadilla fruit crop (Passiflora ligularis), according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals.
Source: Data processed from chemical analysis Laboratory UNMSM 2019.
2.2.6 Analysis of results in relation to the content of cadmium in the soil (mg/kg)
Ho: There are no differences in Cd between sampling groups.
H1: There are differences in Cd between sampling groups.
From the ANOVA analysis in Table 6, it is observed that the significance value is 0.331, a result obtained from comparing selected groups A, B, and C, respectively, in accordance with the heavy metal content of cadmium in the soil from fruit production fields granadilla (P. ligularis) according to intensity of use of agrochemicals. Said value is greater than the significance of α = 0.05; therefore the statistical decision in this regard is to accept the null hypothesis; consequently, the alternative hypothesis is rejected, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to affirm that there are no significant differences in cadmium content in the soil samples at different intensity of application of agrochemicals at a confidence level of 95%.
Variation Source
Sum of squares
gl
Root mean square
F
Sig.
Between groups
0.012
2
0.006
1215
0.331
within groups
0.057
12
0.005
Total
0.069
14
Table 6.
ANOVA of comparison between groups of cadmium content in the soil of the granadilla fruit crop (Passiflora ligularis), according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals.
Source: Data processed from chemical analysis Laboratory UNMSM 2019.
2.2.7 Analysis of results in relation to the copper content in the soil (mg/kg)
Ho: There are no differences in Cu between sampling groups.
H1: There are differences in Cu between sampling groups.
In the ANOVA, the significance value is 0.317, a result that is obtained from comparing selected groups A, B, and C, respectively, in accordance with the heavy metal content of copper in the soil from granadilla fruit (P. ligularis) production fields according to intensity use of agrochemicals. Said value is greater than the significance of α = 0.05; therefore the statistical decision in this regard is to accept the null hypothesis; consequently, the alternative hypothesis is rejected, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to affirm that there are no significant differences in copper content in the soil samples at different intensity of application of agrochemicals at a confidence level of 95% (see Table 7).
Variation Source
Sum of squares
gl
Root mean square
F
Sig.
Between groups
80.,533
2
40.267
1268
0.317
within groups
381.200
12
31.767
Total
461.733
14
Table 7.
ANOVA of comparison between groups of copper content in the soil of the granadilla fruit crop (Passiflora ligularis), according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals.
Source: Data processed from chemical analysis Laboratory UNMSM 2019.
2.2.8 Analysis of results in relation to the content of arsenic and mercury in runoff water (mg/kg)
Ho: There are no differences in As and Hg between sampling groups.
H1: There are differences in As and Hg between sampling groups.
In the ANOVA, the significance values are of 0.469 (As) and 0.624 (Hg), a result obtained from comparing selected groups A, B, and C, respectively, according to the heavy metal content of arsenic and mercury in the runoff water of fields of production from granadilla fruit (P. ligularis) according to intensity of use of agrochemicals. These values are greater than the significance of α = 0.05; therefore the statistical decision in this regard is to accept the null hypothesis; consequently, the alternative hypothesis is rejected, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to affirm that there are no significant differences in the content of arsenic and mercury in the runoff water samples at different intensity of application of agrochemicals at a confidence level of 95% (see Table 8).
Variation Source
SC
gl
CMe
F
Sig.
As
Hg
As
Hg
Between groups (ABC)
0.000
2
0.000
0.808
0.491
0.469
0.624
within groups
0.000
12
0.000
Total
0.000
14
Table 8.
ANOVA of comparison between groups of arsenic and mercury content in runoff water in the granadilla fruit (Passiflora ligularis) crop, according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals.
Source: Data processed from chemical analysis Laboratory UNMSM 2019.
2.2.9 Analysis of results in relation to the content of lead and cadmium in the runoff water (mg/kg)
Ho: There are no differences in Pb and Cd between sampling groups.
H1: There are differences in Pb and Cd between sampling groups.
In the ANOVA, the significance values are 0.887 (Pb) and 0.813 (Cd), a result obtained from comparing selected groups A, B, and C, respectively, according to the heavy metal content of lead and cadmium in the runoff water of fields of production from granadilla fruit (P. ligularis) according to intensity of use of agrochemicals. These values are greater than the significance of α = 0.05; therefore the statistical decision in this regard is to accept the null hypothesis; consequently, the alternative hypothesis is rejected, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to affirm that there are no significant differences in lead and cadmium content in runoff water samples at different intensity of application of agrochemicals at a confidence level of 95% (see Table 9).
Variation Source
SC
gl
CMe
F
Sig.
Pb
Cd
Pb
Cd
Between groups
0.000
2
0.000
0.121
0.211
0.887
0.813
within groups
0.000
12
0.000
Total
0.000
14
Table 9.
ANOVA of comparison between groups of lead and cadmium content in runoff water in granadilla fruit (Passiflora ligularis) cultivation, according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals.
Source: Data processed from chemical analysis Laboratory UNMSM 2019.
2.2.10 Analysis of results in relation to the copper content in the runoff water (mg/kg)
Ho: There are no differences in Cu between sampling groups.
H1: There are differences in Cu between sampling groups.
In the ANOVA, the significance value is 0.622, a result obtained from comparing selected groups A, B, and C, respectively, according to the heavy metal content of copper in the runoff water from the granadilla fruit production fields (P. ligularis) according to intensity of use of agrochemicals. Said value is greater than the significance of α = 0.05; therefore the statistical decision in this regard is to accept the null hypothesis; consequently, the alternative hypothesis is rejected, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to affirm that there are no significant differences in copper content in runoff water samples at different intensity of application of agrochemicals at a confidence level of 95% (see Table 10).
Variation Source
Sum of squares
gl
Root mean square
F
Sig.
Between groups
0.038
2
0.019
0.494
0.622
within groups
0.465
12
0.039
Total
0.503
14
Table 10.
ANOVA of comparison between groups of copper content in runoff water in the cultivation of granadilla (Passiflora ligularis), according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals.
Source: Data processed from chemical analysis Laboratory UNMS 2019.
2.3 Discussion
Next, you perform the comparison of the content and concentration of heavy metals between sampling groups (A, B, and C) according to intensity of application of agrochemicals in the agricultural management of granadilla (P. ligularis), Oxapampa district.
The average results obtained for heavy metals in the fruits were: in the sectors of AcAf SA1Bf, PaCf between 0.26 and 0.36 mg of Cu/kg; (Ch2Af, Ab3Bf ARP3Cf, QllAf, Ch3Bf, SA2Cf) between 0.001 and 0.003 mg of Cd and Pb/kg; (Ab1Af, CaBf, ARP1Cf, Ch1Af, Ab2Bf, ARP2Cf) between 0.0012 and 0.0006 mg of As and Hg/kg. In soils: in the sectors of AcAs SA1Bs, PaCs, between 19 and 25 mg of Cu/kg; (Ch2As, Ab3Bs ARP3Cs, QllAs, Ch3Bs, SA2Cs) between 0.02 and 0.08 mg of Cd and Pb/kg; (Ab1As, CaBs, ARP1Cs, Ch1As, Ab2Bs, ARP2Cs) between 0.05 and 0.08 mg of As and Hg/kg. For the runoff waters: in the sectors of AcAa SA1Ba, PaCa, between 1 and 1.12 mg of Cu/kg; (Ch2Aa, Ab3Ba ARP3Ca, QllAa, Ch3Ba, SA2Ca) between 0.002 and 0.003 mg of Cd and Pb/kg; (Ab1Aa, CaBa, ARP1Ca, Ch1Aa, Ab2Ba, ARP2Ca) between 0.002 and 0.005 mg of As and Hg/kg.
These results show high levels of risk in human health and the environmental contamination in the agroecosystems of the district of Oxapampa, whose main cause is lack of technical advice from state agencies and coupled with this a nontechnical dosage of pesticides and fertilizers, chemicals, agrochemicals, applied by farmers in the production of granadilla fruit.
The average results obtained for heavy metals in fruits are shown below in Table 11, where the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) values [9] are also shown, in mg/kg of body weight for the same heavy metals, in order to observe that there is a toxicological risk related to a weekly consumption of these fruits.
Heavy metal in granadilla fruit (Passiflora ligularis)
Average results mg/kg sample
PTWI: Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake in mg/kg body weight *
Arsenic, As
0.0012 to 0.0006
0.015
Mercury, Hg
0.0012 to 0.0006
0.005
Lead, Pb
0.001 to 0.003
0.025
Cadmium, Cd
0.001 to 0.003
0.007
Copper, Cu
0.26 to 0.36
1
Table 11.
Comparison of the average experimental results with the PTWI of heavy metals in food.
* Source: CODEX STAN 193–1995 Revision 2009 Mod. 2019.
It has been preferred to use the PTWI and not the maximum levels (ML), since this toxicological result is appropriate for food contaminants, such as heavy metals, due to their cumulative capacity. The PTWI by definition is a value that represents the permissible weekly human exposure to such contaminants.
These results are comparable with those obtained in other investigations such as the studies by Fang and Zhu, who showed concentrations of five heavy metals (chromium, copper, cadmium, mercury, and lead) in four fruits (pear, grape, peach-shaped plum, and orange), which exceeded safety standards. They state that the origin of these metals was mainly due to the application of foliar fertilizers, ripening agents, fungicides, and pesticides during flowering and ripening [10]. Shaheen et al. used inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and demonstrated the presence of toxic heavy metals such as As, Cd, Pb, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, and Zn in representative samples of fruits and vegetables in Bangladesh. These results exceeded the maximum permissible concentration (MAC) established by the FAO/WHO for Pb in mango and Cd in tomato among the fruits and vegetables analyzed, representing risks to human health [11].
Other researchers such as Abbasi et al. also evaluated the concentration of heavy metals and associated health risk in processed fruit products sold in local markets in northern Pakistan. They quantified seven metals: cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) in different food samples and showed that measured levels of these metals varied significantly and were relatively higher than their allowable limits. Univariate and multivariate analysis yielded a strong association between Cr, Co, Pb, and Fe and confirmed heavy metal contamination through natural and anthropogenic sources in processed foods [12].
Likewise, Marini et al. evaluated the daily intake in various foods of four heavy metals, such as cadmium, mercury, lead, and arsenic; and four minerals: chromium, nickel, selenium, and zinc. The risk of exceeding the provisional tolerable daily intake in the four proposed Danish dietary profiles was on average 60%, 17%, and 16% for cadmium, mercury, and lead, respectively. For total arsenic, the risk of exceeding the provisional daily intake was 33%, and they emphasize the importance of implementing measures to reduce the risk cycle of heavy metals that threaten environmental health and food safety [13], showing a relationship with the results obtained in this work.
As will be seen later, the results obtained in the investigation agree with other studies, in which they also demonstrated that the contaminated water used for growing vegetables has contaminated the soil and that the samples of water, soil, and vegetables were contaminated with Ni, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn, and the concentration trends of these metals were as follows: 0,613 > 0,316 > 0,162 > 0,065 > 0,041 > 0,028 mL/L for Ni, Cd, Pb, Cr, Cu, and Zn, respectively, in the contaminated water and 189,09 > 125 > 104,92 > 41,85 > 28,58 > 21,72 for Zn, Cr, Ni, Pb, Cu, and Cd mg/kg in the soil, which represents a risk to the health of the population [14, 15].
Table 12 shows the concentrations of heavy metals: Pb, As. Cd, Cu, and Hg, obtained by this research in runoff water in the granadilla fruit (P. ligularis) cultivation fields and the concentrations of water destined for livestock activity for dairy animal consumption in the location of Chontabamba [16].
Concentration of heavy metals: Pb, As. Cd, Cu, and Hg in runoff water and water collected in the cattle town of Chontabamba – Oxapampa [16].
Source: Bernal Marcelo, A.R., 2019.
NA = not detected.
Table 12 shows the results obtained by Bernal from the analysis of water from broken, rivulets that originate from wetlands, groundwater, and that are relatively protected by natural forest areas, and that correspond to areas dedicated only to livestock, where no As, Cd, and Cu are detected, while Hg and Pb present relatively low levels. Compared with the results of the study for this water factor, an impact on runoff water contamination is observed, which would be related to the use of agrochemicals in granadilla fruit (P. ligularis) crops and the consequent risk to human health.
Table 13 shows the contents of heavy metals in the grazing soil of the dairy herds analyzed in samples from the localities of Chontabamba and Oxapampa [16] and the concentrations of these heavy metals obtained by the study in the soils intended for the cultivation of granadilla (P. ligularis).
Concentration of heavy metals: Pb, As, Cd, Cu, and Hg, in the soil of granadilla fruit (Passiflora ligularis) cultivation and soil of the cattle town of Chontabamba and Oxapampa [16].
Source: Bernal Marcelo, A.R., 2019.
In Table 13 it can be seen how the concentrations of heavy metals present in the soils destined for livestock, downstream of the soils destined for the cultivation of granadilla show a higher concentration of heavy metals in arsenic, mercury, lead, and cadmium with the exception of copper, where its value is small compared with the soil for granadilla fruit that has a high concentration, which corroborates the hypothesis that the excessive use of agrochemicals would be the cause of these negative environmental impacts and that they represent a risk to human health.
The studies carried out by other authors corroborate the results obtained in this investigation, agreeing when mentioning that there are differences between the different managements studied, evidencing that in those intensively used soils, the highest values were recorded for Cu2+ and Pb2+ while in the case of Cd2+, the agricultural management system presented the highest content, reaching a value higher than the maximum permissible limit of several countries [17]. On the other hand, it is also mentioned that that the coefficient of variation of the analyzed metal content indicates that the values are dispersed in a range average: copper from 0.007 to 0.053, cadmium from 0.013 to 0.070, and lead from 0.010 to 0.064 [18].
From the results of the statistical analysis by ANOVA of comparison between groups according to intensity of use of agrochemicals (A, B, and C) for soil samples obtained from the production fields of P. ligularis of the selected farmers, it is found that the heavy metals found such as arsenic, lead, cadmium, and copper, according to hypothesis testing, it was shown that there is no significant difference in the concentrations of these heavy metals in soils. However, in the case of mercury concentration, it did show significant differences between the groups of samples that were analyzed. These results indicate that the contamination of the soil by these chemical elements is limiting the quality of the agricultural products of Oxapampa. In this regard, they point out that the high proportion of Pb is a potential bioavailable contaminant that can interfere with the development of crops and that can be incorporated into the different levels of the food chain until reaching human beings.
On the other hand, from the analysis by ANOVA of comparison between groups of samples selected according to intensity of use of agrochemicals, for heavy metals such as arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium, and copper that were found and analyzed in the runoff water of the granadilla fruit (P. ligularis) production fields, the hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the concentration of these chemical elements was demonstrated, the same ones that agree with the results obtained by Pérez [18].
Finally, from the ANOVA analysis of comparison between groups according to the intensity of use of agrochemicals (A, B, and C) for samples of granadilla (P. ligularis) fruits from the fields of the selected farmers, the heavy metals found that such as arsenic, mercury, lead, and copper and according to the verification of hypotheses, it was shown that there is no significant difference in the concentrations of said heavy metals. However, in the case of the concentration of cadmium, it did show significant differences between the groups of samples analyzed. This statistical procedure carried out is reinforced by mentioning that through the analysis of variance of one factor (ANOVA), the comparison tests serve to evaluate the behavior of the experimental data obtained in the analysis [19].
From the results that have been obtained in the investigation related to the contamination of water, soil, and passion fruit (P. ligularis) in Oxapampa, due to the excessive use of agrochemicals in the agricultural fields, it is concluded that the fruits indeed have a content of metals As, Pb, Cd, Hg, and Cu, which when compared with the provisional tolerable weekly intake, PTWI, toxicological criteria for heavy metal intake in foods because they are cumulative, expressed in mg/kg of body weight for each heavy metal is evident that the risk of toxicity to human health is increasing if corrective measures are not taken to mitigate these future impacts.
The quality of runoff water in the agricultural sector was compared with water quality data from the livestock sector within the same area of study, observing that the levels of contamination by As, Cd, and Cu are increasing in the agricultural sector compared with nonpresence of the same in the cattle fields. Not so in relation to soil contamination, because when comparing the results of the study with others within the sector, it was observed that the livestock sector is more impacted by the five heavy metals compared with the agricultural sector. This accumulation of heavy metals in livestock soils would be due to the drag, transport, and diffusion mechanisms of agrochemical contaminants formulated with these metals, which are applied in excess in agricultural fields that occupy higher slopes, concluding that there is a process increasing environmental contamination in Oxapampa and that represents a potential risk to human health due to ingestion through fruits, and other foods that are consumed in the place and outside of it, as some of these are for export.
By an analysis of variance, with a probability of α = 0.05 and a confidence level of 95%, for comparisons between three groups of farmers (A, B, and C), selected according to the intensity of application of agrochemicals in production of granadilla fruits, it was shown that in the case of the concentrations of heavy metals in fruits, such as arsenic, mercury, lead, and copper, there are no significant differences; not so for cadmium, which showed a significant existence. In the case of the content of heavy metals in soils, such as arsenic, lead, cadmium, and copper, it was also shown that there are no significant differences; however, mercury showed significant existence. In the case of the content of heavy metals in runoff waters such as arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium, and copper, it was shown that there are no significant differences.
Therefore, considering the spatial and temporal environment of agricultural and livestock activities in the district of Oxapampa, it is concluded that there is a potential risk of toxicity to human health due to ingestion of granadilla (P. ligularis).
Our thanks to the authorities of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos (UNMSM) and Daniel Alcides Carrión de Cerro de Pasco (UNDAC) for allowing us the use of their laboratories and facilities during the execution of this investigation.
Maximum permissible limit of heavy metals, (mg/kg)
Ab1Af
Code (Abra, first sample, group A, fruit components)
CaBf
Code (Cane, group B, fruit component)
ARP1Cf
Code (Alto Rio pisco, first sample, group C, fruit component)
Ch1Af
Code (Chacos, first sample, group A, fruit component)
Ab2Bf
Code (Abra, second sample, group B, fruit component)
ARP2Cf
Code (Alto Rio Pisco, second sample, group C, fruit component)
Ch2Af
Code (Chacos, second sample, group A, fruit component)
Ab3Bf
Code (Abra, third sample, group B, fruit component)
ARP3Cf
Code (Alto Rio Pisco, third sample, group C, fruit component)
QllAf
Code (Quillazú, group A, fruit component)
Ch3Bf
Code (Chacos, third sample, group B, fruit component)
SA2Cf
Code (San Alberto, second sample, group C, fruit component)
AcAf
Code (Acuzazú, group A, fruit component)
SA1Bf
Code (San Alberto first sample, group B, fruit component)
PaCf
Code (Paraíso, group C, fruit component)
Ab1As
Code (Abra, first sample, group A, soil components)
CaBs
Code (Sugar cane, group B, soil component)
ARP1Cs
Code (Alto Rio Pisco, first sample, group C, soil component)
Ch1As
Code (Chacos, first sample, group A, soil component)
Ab2Bs
Code (Abra, second sample, group B, soil component)
ARP2Cs
Code (Alto Rio Pisco, second sample, group C, soil component)
Ch2As
Code (Chacos, second sample, group A, soil component)
Ab3Bs
Code (Abra, third sample, group B, soil component)
ARP3Cs
Code (Alto Rio Pisco, third sample, group C, soil component)
QllAs
Code (Quillazú, group A, soil component)
Ch3Bs
Code (Chacos, third sample, group B, soil component)
SA2Cs
Code (San Alberto, second sample, group C, soil component)
AcAs
Code (Acuzazú, group A, soil component)
SA1Bs
Code (San Alberto first sample, group B, soil component)
PaCs
Code (Paraíso group C soil component)
Ab1Aa
Code (Abra, first sample, group A, water component)
CaBa
Code (Sugar cane, group B, water component)
ARP1Ca
Code (Alto Rio Pisco, first sample, group C, water component)
Ch1Aa
Code (Chacos, first sample, group A, water component)
Ab2Ba
Code (Abra, second sample, group B, water component)
ARP2Ca
Code (Alto Rio Pisco, second sample, group C, water component)
Ch2Aa
Code (Chacos, second sample, group A, water component)
Ab3Ba
Code (Abra, third sample, group B, water component)
ARP3Ca
Code (Alto Rio Pisco, third sample, group C, water component)
QllAa
Code (Quillazú, group A, water component)
Ch3Ba
Code (Chacos, third sample, group B, water component)
SA2Ca
Code (San Alberto, second sample, group C, water component)
AcAa
Code (Acuzazú, group A, water component)
SA1Ba
Code (San Alberto first sample, group B, water component)
PaCa
Code (Paradise, group C, water component)
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Written By
Benito Buendía Quispe and Raymundo Erazo Erazo
Submitted: 01 February 2022Reviewed: 12 April 2022Published: 17 May 2022
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
