Abstract
Before considering estrogen alternatives, the relative and absolute contraindications to estrogen therapy should be considered. The scientific basis for them is limited and in many cases is nonexistent or there is evidence to the contrary.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Beex L, Pieters G, Smals A, Koenders A, Benraad T, Kloppenborg P. Tamoxifen versus ethinyl estradiol in the treatment of postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer. Cancer Treatment Rep 1981; 65: 179–185.
Creasman W. Estrogen replacement therapy: is previously treated cancer a contraindication? Obstet Gynecol 1991; 77: 308–312.
DiSaia P. Hormone-replacement therapy in patients with breast cancer: a reappraisal. Cancer Suppl 1993; 71: 1490–1500.
Eden J, Bush T, Nand S, Wren B. A case-control study of combined continuous estrogen-progestin replacement therapy among women with a personal history of breast cancer. Menopause: JNAMS 1995;2:(2)67–72.
Lee R, Burke T, Park R. Estrogen replacement therapy following treatment for stage I endometrial carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 1990; 36: 189–191.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Estrogen replacement therapy and endometrial cancer. Committe opinion: committee on gynecologic practice 1995; 126.
Chapman JA, DiSaia PJ, Osann K, Roth PD, Gillotte DL, Berman ML. Estrogen replacement in surgical stage I and II endometrial cancer survisors. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 1195–1200.
Devor M, Barrett-Connor E, Renvall M, Feigal D, Ramsdell J. Estrogen replacement therapy and the risk of venous thrombosis. Am J Med 1992; 92: 275–282.
The Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program. Surgically confirmed gallbladder disease, venous thromboembolism, and breast tumors in relation to postmenopausal estrogen therapy. N Engl J Med 1974; 290: 15–19.
Nachtigall L, Nachtigall R, Nachtigall R, Beckman E Estrogen replacement therapy II: a prospective study in the relationship to carcinoma and cardiovascular and metabolic problems. Obstet Gynecol 1979; 54: 74–79.
Petitti DB, Wingerd J, Pellegrin F, Ramcharan S. Risk of vascular disease in women: smoking, oral contraceptives, noncontraceptive estrogens, and other factors. JAMA 1979; 242: 1150–1154.
Jick H, Derby L, Myers M, Vasilakis C, Newton K. Risk of hospital admission for idiopathic venous thromboembolism among users of postmenopausal oestrogens. Lancet 1996; 348: 981–983.
Daly E, Vessey M, Hawkins M, Carson J, Gough P, Marsh S. Risk of venous thromboembolism in users of hormone replacement therapy. Lancet 1996; 348: 977–980.
Grodstein F, Stampfer MJ, Goldhaber SZ, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, et al. Prospective study of exogenous hormones and risk of pulmonary embolism in women. Lancet 1996; 348: 983–987.
Gutthann SP, Rodriguez LA, Castellsague J, Oliart AD. Hormone replacement therapy and risk of venous thromboembolis: population based case-control study. BMJ 1997; 314: 796–800.
Pabinger, I, Schneider B. Thrombotic risk of women with hereditary antithrombin III protein C- and protein s-deficiency taking oral contraceptive medication. The GTH Study Group on Natural Inhibitors. Thromb Haemostas 1994; 71: 548–552.
Rintelen C, Mannhalter C, Ireland H, Lane D, Knobl P, Lechner K, et al. Oral contraceptives enhance the risk of clinical manifestation of venous thrombosis at a young age in females homozygous for factor V Leiden. Br J Haematol 1996; 93: 487–490.
Weitz I, Isreal V, Liebman H. Tamoxifen-associated venous thrombosis and activated protein C resistance due to factor V Leiden. Cancer 1997; 79: 2024–2027.
Albrecht B, Schiff I, Tulinchinsky D, Ryan K. Objective evidence that placebo and oral medroxyprogesterone acetate therapy diminish menopausal vasomotor flushes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1981; 136: 361.
Morrison J, Martin D, Blair R, Anderson G. The use of medroxyprogesterone acetate for relief of climacteric symptoms. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1980; 138: 99.
Lobo R, McCormic W, Singer F, Roy S. Depomedroxyprogesterone acetate compared with conjugated estrogens for the treatment of postmenopausal women. Obstet Gynecol 1984; 63: 1.
Smith JA. A prospective comparison of treatments for symptomatic hot flushes following endocrine therapy for carcinoma of the prostate. J Urol 1994; 152: 132–134.
Loprinzi CL, Michalak JC, Quella SK, O’Fallon JR, Hatfield AK, Nelimark RA, et al. Megestrol acetate for the prevention of hot flashes. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 347–352.
Gambrell R. Clinical use of progestins in the menopausal patient. J Reprod Med 1983; 27: 531.
Foster G, Zacur H, Rock J Hot flushes in postmenopausal women ameliorated by danazol. Fertil Steril 1985; 43: 401.
Laufer L, Erlik Y, Meldrum D, Judd H. Effect of clonidine on hot flashes in postmenopausal women. Obstet Gynecol 1982; 60: 583.
Nagamani M, Kelver M, Smith E. Treatment of menopausal hot flashes with transdermal administration of clonidine. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 156: 561.
Nesheim B, Saetre T. Reduction of menopausal hot flushes by methyldopa. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 20: 413.
Bergmans M, Merkins J, Corbey R, Schellekens L. Effect of Bellergal Retard on climacteric complaints: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Maturitas 1987; 9: 227–234.
Black DM, Cummings SR, Karpf DB, Cauley JA, Thompson DE, Nevitt MC, et al. Randomised trial of effect of alendronate on risk of fracture in women with existing vertebral fractures. Lancet 1996; 348: 1535–1541.
Hosking D, McConnell M, Ravn P, Wasnich D, Thompson M, Daley M, et al. Alendronate in the prevention of osteoporosis: EPIC study two-year results. Am Soc Bone Mineral Res 1996;1996 Ann Meet.
Rimmer DE, Rawls DE. Improper alendronate administration and a case of pill esophagitis [Letter]. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 2648–2649.
Watts N, Harris S, Genant H, Wasnich R. Intermittent cyclical etidronate treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 7379.
Fornander T, Rutqvist L, Wilking N, Carlstrom K, von Schoultz B. Oestrogenic effects of adjuvant tamoxifen in postmenopausal breast cancer. Eur J Cancer 1993;29A:(4)497–500.
Draper M, Flowers D, Huster W, Neild J, Harper K, Arnaud C. A controlled trial of rolaxifene (LY 139481) HC 1: impact on bone turnover and serum lipid profile in healthy postmenopausal women. J Bone Mineral Res 1996; 11: 835–842.
Ayalon J, Simkin A, Leichter, I, Raifmann S. Dynamic bone loading exercises for postmenopausal women: effect on the density of the distal radius. Arch Phys Med Rehab 1987; 68: 280.
White M, Martin R, Yeater R. The effects of exercise on the bones of postmenopausal women. Int Orthoped 1984; 7: 209.
Krolner B, Toft B, Nielsen S, Tondevold E. Physical exercise as prophylaxis against involutional vertebral bone loss: a controlled trial. Clin Sci 1983; 64: 541.
Stevenson J, Whitehead M, Padwick M, Endacott J, Sutton C, Banks L, et al. Dietary intake of calcium and postmenopausal bone loss. BMJ 1988; 297: 15–17.
Dawson-Hughes B. Calcium supplementation and bone loss: a review of controlled clinical trials. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 51: 274S - 280S.
Ettinger B, Genant HK, Cann CE. Postmenopausal bone loss is prevented by treatment with low-dosage estrogen with calcium. Ann Intern Med 1987; 106: 40–45.
Riffs B, Thomsen K, Christiansen C. Does calcium supplementation prevent postmenopausal bone loss? N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 173.
Michaelsson R, Bergstron R, Holmberg L, Mallmin H, Wolk A, Ljunghall S. A high dietary calcium intake is needed for a positive effect on bone density in Swedish postmenopausal women. Osteopor Internat 1997; 7: 155–161.
Riggs B, Hodgson S, O’ Fallon W, Chao E. Effect of fluoride treatment of the fracture rate in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 802.
Pak C, Sakhaee K, Adams-Huet B, Piziak, V, Peterson R, Poindexter J. Treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis with slow-release sodium fluoride–final report of a randomized controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123: 401–408.
Maclntyre, I, Whitehead M, Banks L, Stevenson J. Calcitonin for prevention of postmenopausal bone loss. Lancet 1988; 900.
Lindheim S, Notelovitz M, Feldman E, Larsen S, Kahn F, Lobo R. The independent effects of exercise and estrogen on lipids and lipoproteins in postmenopausal women. Obstet Gynecol 1994; 83: 167–172.
Wiseman H, Cannon M, Arnstein HR, Barlow DJ. The structural minicry of membrane sterols by tamoxifen: evidence from cholesterol coefficients and molecular-modelling for its action as a membrane anti-oxidant and an anti-cancer agent. Biochim Biophys Acta 1992; 1138: 197–202.
McDonald CC, Alexander FE, Whyte BW, Forrest AP, Stewart HJ. Cardiac and vascular morbidity in women receiving adjuvant tamosifen for breast cancer in a randomised trial. The Scottish Cancer Trials Breast Gourp. BMJ 1995; 311: 977–980.
Elisaf M, Bairaktari E, Nicolaides C, Fountzilas G, Tzallas C, Siamopoulos K, et al. The beneficial effect of tamoxifen on serum lipoprotein-A levels: an additional anti-atherogenic property. Anticancer Res 1996; 16: 2725–2728.
Sherwin B. Estrogen and/or androgen replacement therapy and cognitive functioning in surgically menopausal women. Pschoneuroendocrinol 1988; 13: 345–357.
McDonald C, Stewart H. Fatal myocardial infarction in the Scottish adjuvant tamoxifen trial. BMJ 1991; 303: 435–437.
Rutqvist LE, Mattsson A. Cardiac and thromboembolic morbidity among postmenopausal women with early stage breast cancer in a randomized trial of adjuvant tamoxifen. J Nat Cancer Inst 1993; 85: 1398–1406.
Costantino J, Kuller L, Ives D, Fisher B, Dignam J. Coronary heart disease mortality and adjavant tamoxifen therapy. J Nat Cancer Inst 1997; 89: 776–782.
Clarkson TB, Anthony MS, Jerome CP. Lack of effect of raloxifene on coronary artery atherosclerosis of postmenopausal monkeys. J Clin Endo Metab 1988; 83 (3): 721–726.
Sullivan J, Zwaag R, Hughes J, Maddock, V, Kroetz F, Ramanathan K, et al. Estrogen replacement therapy and coronary artery disease: effect on survival in postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med 1990; 150: 2557–2562.
Sano M, Ernesto C, Thomas R, Klauber M, Schafer K, Grunduran M, et al. A controlled trial of Selegiline, Alpha-Tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheier’s disease. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 1216–1222.
Rich J, Rasmusson D, Folstein M, Carson K, Kawas C, Brandt J. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 1995; 45: 51–55.
Chowen J, Torres-Aleman, I, Garcia-Segura L. Trophic effects of estradiol on fetal rat hypothalamic neurons. Neuroendocrinology 1992; 56: 895–901.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1999 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Thorneycroft, I.H. (1999). Nonestrogen Alternatives for Menopause. In: Seifer, D.B., Kennard, E.A. (eds) Menopause. Contemporary Endocrinology, vol 18. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-246-3_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-246-3_11
Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ
Print ISBN: 978-1-61737-129-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-246-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive