Abstract
Genuine actors will react to the message they read and the messenger they encounter. We categorized these reactions into those related to affect and engagement (e.g., high arousal-specific emotions such as surprise or disgust) and those related to cognitive factors that influence belief, including factors that prompt individuals to engage in heuristic thinking. These affective and cognitive factors often interact in complex ways. We also categorized entertainment, humor, and intellectual engagement as inherently both related to affect and cognition. Believing in the content of the message is not necessary for individuals to share it online.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Amazon’s Mechanical Turk is a marketplace where individuals sign up for brief tasks for small pay, including data de-duplication, identifying objects in a photograph, and taking part in experiments.
- 2.
One topic not covered here is individuals’ reactions to pornographic content, which may also spur reactions that may or may not motivate sharing behavior.
References
Abad-Santos, A. (2017, December 18). Star Wars’ porgs and the power of “charismatic minifauna,” explained. Vox. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/culture/2017/12/18/16776834/star-wars-porgs-charismatic-minifauna-cute
Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31, 211–236.
Alley, T. R. (1981). Head shape and the perception of cuteness. Developmental Psychology, 17, 650–654.
Alter, A. L., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2009). Uniting the tribes of fluency to form a metacognitive nation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13, 219–235.
Arnone, M., Small, R., Chauncey, S., & McKenna, H. (2011). Curiosity, interest and engagement in technology-pervasive learning environments: A new research agenda. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59, 181–198.
Barrett, L. F., Mesquita, B., Ochsner, K. N., & Gross, J. J. (2007). The experience of emotion. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 373–403.
Berger, J., & Milkman, K. (2012). What makes online content viral? Journal of Marketing Research, 49, 192–205. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.10.0353
Berinsky, A. J. (2015). Rumors and health care reform: Experiments in political misinformation. British Journal of Political Science, 47, 241–262.
Bordia, P., & DiFonzo, N. (2007). Rumor psychology: Social and organizational approaches. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Botha, E., & Reyneke, M. (2013). To share or not to share: The role of content and emotion in viral marketing. Journal of Public Affairs, 13, 160–171. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.1471
Boutz, J., Brugman, C., & Lancaster, A. (2017). Quoting the Prophet online: Communicative functions of hadith quotations in web-based Arabic discourse. Journal of Arab & Muslim Media Research, 10, 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1386/jammr.10.1.3_1
Brady, W. J., Wills, J. A., Jost, J. T., Tucker, J. A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2017). Emotion shapes the diffusion of moralized content in social networks. PNAS, 114, 7313–7318.
Brenner, C. J., & Inbar, Y. (2015). Disgust sensitivity predicts political ideology and policy attitudes in the Netherlands. European Journal of Social Psychology, 45, 27–38.
Brock, T. C., & Green, M. C. (Eds.). (2005). Persuasion: Psychological insights and perspectives (2nd ed.). London: Sage.
Broniatowski, D. A., Hilyard, K. M., & Dredze, M. (2016). Effective vaccine communication during the Disneyland measles outbreak. Vaccine, 34, 3225–3228.
Brown, A. S., Brown, L. A., & Zoccoli, S. L. (2002). Repetition-based credibility enhancement of unfamiliar faces. American Journal of Psychology, 115, 199–209.
Buckley, R. (2016). Aww: The emotion of perceiving cuteness. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1740–1740.
Buehlman, K. T., Gottman, J. M., & Katz, L. F. (1992). How a couple views their past predicts their future: Predicting divorce from an oral history interview. Journal of Family Psychology, 5, 295–318.
Cacciatore, M. A., Scheufele, D. A., & Iyengar, S. (2016). The end of framing as we know it…and the future of media effects. Mass Communication and Society, 19, 7–23.
Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., Feinstein, J. A., & Jarvis, W. B. G. (1996). Dispositional differences in cognition motivation: The life and times of individuals varying in need for cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 197–253.
Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., Kao, C. F., & Rodriguez, R. (1986). Central and peripheral routes to persuasion: An individual difference perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1032–1043.
Chaiken, S., & Maheswaran, D. (1994). Heuristic processing can bias systematic processing: effects of source credibility, argument ambiguity, and task importance on attitude judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 460–473.
Chan, M.-P. S., Jones, C. R., Jamieson, K. H., & Albarracín, D. (2017). Debunking: A meta-analysis of the psychological efficacy of messages countering misinformation. Psychological Science, 28, 1531–1546. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617714579
Chen, S., & Chaiken, S. (1999). The heuristic-systematic model in its broader context. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 73–96). New York: Guilford Press.
Chen, X., & Sin, S. (2013). ‘Misinformation? What of it?’ Motivations and individual differences in misinformation sharing on social media. In Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology (Vol. 50, pp 1–4). Montreal, Quebec, Canada. https://doi.org/10.1002/meet.14505001102
Chessen, M. (2017). The MADCOM future: How artificial intelligence will enhance computational propaganda, reprogram human culture, and threaten democracy….and what can be done about it. Washington, DC: Atlantic Council.
Contractor, N. S., & DeChurch, L. A. (2014). Integrating social networks and human social motives to achieve social influence at scale. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 13650–13657.
Cook, J., & Lewandowsky, S. (2012). The debunking handbook. St. Lucia: University of Queensland. November 5. ISBN 978-0-646-56812-6. [http://sks.to/debunk].
De Dreu, C. K. W., & Nijstad, B. A. (2008). Mental set and creative thought in social conflict: Threat rigidity versus motivated focus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 648–661. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.3.648
De Keersmaecker, J., & Roets, A. (2017). ‘Fake news’: Incorrect, but hard to correct: The role of cognitive ability on the impact of false information on social impressions. Intelligence, 65, 107–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2017.10.005
DeFleur, M. L., & Ball-Rokeach, S. (1989). Theories of mass communication (5th ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.
Ditto, P. H., Liu, B. S., Clark, C. J., Wojcik, S. P., Chen, E. E., Grady, R. H., et al. (2018). At least bias is bipartisan: A meta-analytic comparison of partisan bias in liberals and conservatives. Perspectives on Psychological Science., 14(2), 273–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617746796
Dredze, M., Broniatowski, D. A., & Hilyard, K. M. (2016). Zika vaccine misconceptions: A social media analysis. Vaccine, 34, 3441–3442.
Dredze, M., Broniatowski, D. A., Smith, M. C., & Hilyard, K. M. (2016). Understanding vaccine refusal: Why we need social media now. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 50, 550–552.
Druckman, J. N. (2001). On the limits of framing effects: Who can frame? Journal of Politics, 63, 1041–1066.
Ducarme, F., Luque, G. M., & Courchamp, F. (2013). What are “charismatic species” for conservation biologists? BioSciences Master Reviews, 1, 1–8.
Dunbar, N. E., Miller, C. H., Adame, B. J., Elizondo, J., Wilson, S. N., Lane, B. L., et al. (2014). Implicit and explicit training in the mitigation of cognitive bias through the use of a serious game. Computers in Human Behavior, 34, 307–318.
Ecker, U. K. H., Hogan, J. L., & Lewandowsky, S. (2017). Reminders and repetition of misinformation: Helping or hindering its retraction? Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6, 185–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.01.014
Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Chang, E. P., & Pillai, R. (2014). The effects of subtle misinformation in news headlines. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 20, 323–335.
Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Fenton, O., & Martin, K. (2014). Do people keep believing because they want to? Preexisting attitudes and the continued influence of misinformation. Memory & Cognition, 42, 292–304.
Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., & Tang, D. T. W. (2010). Explicit warnings reduce but do not eliminate the continued influence of misinformation. Memory & Cognition, 38, 1087–1100.
Ekman, P. (1984). Expression and the nature of emotion. In K. R. Scherer & P. Ekman (Eds.), Approaches to emotion (pp. 319–343). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Ekman, P. (1992a). Are there basic emotions? Psychological Review, 99, 550–553.
Ekman, P. (1992b). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 169–200.
Ekman, P., & Cordaro, D. (2011). What is meant by calling emotions basic. Emotion Review, 3, 364–370.
Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2002). On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 203–235.
Entman, R. (1993). Framing: Toward a clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43, 51–58.
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2003). In two minds: Dual-process accounts of reasoning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 454–459.
Farwell, J. P. (2014). The media strategy of ISIS. Survival, 45, 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2014.985436
Flynn, D. J., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2017). The nature and origins of misconceptions: Understanding false and unsupported beliefs about politics. Advances in Political Psychology, 38, 127–150.
Freedman, J. L., & Fraser, S. C. (1966). Compliance without pressure: The foot-in-the-door technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 195–202.
Friesen, J. P., Campbell, T. H., & Kay, A. C. (2015). The psychological advantage of unfalsifiability: The appeal of untestable religious and political ideologies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108, 515–529.
Garcia-Marques, T., Silva, R. R., & Mello, J. (2016). Judging the truth-value of a statement in and out of a deep processing context. Social Cognition, 34, 40–54.
Glocker, M. L., Langleben, D. D., Ruparel, K., Loughead, J. W., Gur, R. C., & Sachser, N. (2009). Baby schema in infant faces induces cuteness perception and motivation for caretaking in adults. Ethology, 115, 257–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2008.01603.x
Goel, V., & Dolan, R. J. (2001). The functional anatomy of humor: Segregating cognitive and affective components. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 237–238.
Golle, J., Lisibach, S., Mast, F. W., & Lobmaier, J. S. (2013). Sweet puppies and cute babies: Perceptual adaptation to babyfacedness transfers across species. PLoS One, 8, e58248. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0058248
Goolsby, R. (2013). On cybersecurity, crowdsourcing, and social cyber-attack (Policy Memo Series, Vol. 1). Washington, DC: Wilson Center Science and Technology Innovation Program Commons Lab.
Gottman, J. M. (1991). Chaos and regulated change in families: A metaphor for the study of transitions. In P. A. Cowan & M. Hetherington (Eds.), Family transitions (pp. 247–272). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Greer, J. D. (2003). Evaluating the credibility of online information: A test of source and advertising influence. Mass Communication and Society, 6, 11–28. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327825MCS0601_3
Groshek, J., & Al-Rawi, A. (2013). Public sentiment and critical framing in social media content during the 2012 U.S. political campaign. Social Science Computer Review, 31, 563–576.
Ha, S., & Ahn, J. (2011). Why are you sharing others’ tweets?: The impact of argument quality and source credibility on information sharing behavior. Paper presented at the 32nd International Conference on Information Systems (ICIS). ISBN: 978-0-615-55907-0.
Hasell, A., & Weeks, B. (2016). Partisan provocation: The role of partisan news use and emotional responses in political information sharing in social media. Human Communication Research, 42, 641–661. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12092
Heesacker, M., Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1983). Field dependence and attitude change: Source credibility can alter persuasion by affecting message-relevant thinking. Journal of Personality, 51, 653–666.
Hernandez, I., & Preston, J. L. (2013). Disfluency disrupts the confirmation bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 178–182.
Higgins, E. T., & Bargh, J. A. (1987). Social cognition and social perception. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 369–425.
Horne, Z., Powell, D., Hummel, J. E., & Holyoak, K. J. (2015). Countering antivaccination attitudes. PNAS, 112, 10321–10324.
Hovland, C. I., & Weiss, W. (1951). The influence of source credibility on communication effectiveness. Public Opinion Quarterly, 15, 635–650.
Inbar, Y., Pizarro, D., Iyer, R., & Haidt, J. (2012). Disgust sensitivity, political conservatism, and voting. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3, 537–544.
Jost, J. T., & Krochik, M. (2014). Ideological differences in epistemic motivation: Implications for attitude structure, depth of information processing, susceptibility to persuasion, and stereotyping. Advances in Motivation Science, 1, 181–231.
Kahan, D. (2016). The politically motivated reasoning paradigm, part 1: What politically motivated reasoning is and how to measure it. In R. Scott & S. Kosslyn (Eds.), Emerging trends in the social and behavioral sciences (pp. 1–16). New York: Wiley.
Kim, J., Lee, C., & Elias, T. (2015). Factors affecting information sharing in social networking sites amongst university students. Online Information Review, 39(3), 290–309. https://doi.org/10.1108/OIR-01-2015-0022
King, G., Schneer, B., & White, A. (2017). How the news media activate public expression and influence national agendas. Science, 358, 776–780.
Lakoff, G. (2010). Why it matters how we frame the environment. Environmental Communication, 4, 70–81.
Langlois, S. (2016, December 17). How does your favorite news source rate on the ‘truthiness’ scale? Consult this chart. Marketwatch. Retrieved from https://www.marketwatch.com/story/how-does-your-favorite-news-source-rate-on-the-truthiness-scale-consult-this-chart-2016-12-15
Lev-Ari, S., & Keysar, B. (2010). Why don’t we believe non-native speakers? The influence of accent on credibility. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 1093–1096.
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012). Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13, 106–131.
Lilienfeld, S. O., Ammirati, R., & Landfield, K. (2009). Giving debiasing away: Can psychological research on correcting cognitive errors promote human welfare? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 390–398.
Loewenstein, G., & Lerner, J. S. (2003). The role of affect in decision making. In R. J. Davidson, K. R. Scherer, & H. H. Goldsmith (Eds.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 619–642). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lord, C. G., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1979). Biased assimilation and attitude polarization: The effects of prior theories on subsequently considered evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 2098–2109.
MacCoun, R. (1998). Biases in the interpretation and use of research results. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 259–287.
MacCoun, R. J., & Paletz, S. B. F. (2009). Citizens’ perceptions of ideological bias in research on public policy controversies. Political Psychology, 30, 43–65.
McIntyre, K., & Gibson, R. (2016). Positive news makes readers feel good: A “Silver-Lining” approach to negative news can attract audiences. Southern Communication Journal, 81, 304–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/1041794X.2016.1171892
Mitra, T., & Gilbert, E. (2014). The language that gets people to give: Phrases that predict success on Kickstarter. In CSCW’14, Baltimore, MD. https://doi.org/10.1145/2531602.2531656
Mønsted, B., Sapieżyński, P., Ferrara, E., & Lehmann, S. (2017). Evidence of complex contagion of information in social media: An experiment using Twitter bots. PLoS One, 12, e0184148.
Napier, J. L., Huang, J., Vonasch, A. J., & Bargh, J. A. (2017). Superheroes for change: Physical safety promotes socially (but not economically) progressive attitudes among conservatives. European Journal of Social Psychology, 48(2), 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2315
Newman, E. J., Garry, M., Bernstein, D. M., Kantner, J., & Lindsay, D. S. (2012). Nonprobative photographs (or words) inflate truthiness. Psychonomic Bulletin Review, 19, 969–974.
Newman, E. J., Sanson, M., Miller, E. K., Quigley-McBride, A., Foster, J. L., Bernstein, D. M., et al. (2014). People with easier to pronounce names promote truthiness of claims. PLoS One, 9, e88671.
Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2, 175–220.
Nittono, H., Fukushima, M., Yano, A., Moriya, H., & Paterson, K. (2012). The power of kawaii: Viewing cute images promotes a careful behavior and narrows attentional focus. Plos One, 7, 46362. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0046362
Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32, 303–330.
Paletz, D. L., Koon, J., Whitehead, E., & Hagens, R. B. (1972). Selective exposure: The potential boomerang effect. Journal of Communication, 22, 48–53.
Papacharissi, Z. (2017). Affective publics: Sentiment, technology and politics. New York: Oxford University Press.
Paul, C., & Matthews, M. (2016). The Russian “firehose of falsehood” propaganda model: Why it might work and options to counter it. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. Retrieved from https://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PE198.html
Pennycook, G., Cannon, T. D., & Rand, D. G. (2018). Prior exposure increases perceived accuracy of fake news. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147(12), 1865–1880. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000465
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2018). Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than motivated reasoning. Cognition. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.06.011
Peter, C., & Koch, T. (2016). When debunking scientific myths fails (and when it does not): The backfire effect in the context of journalistic coverage and immediate judgments as prevention strategy. Science Communication, 38, 3–25.
Peters, K., Kashima, Y., & Clark, A. (2009). Talking about others: Emotionality and the dissemination of social information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.523
Petrova, P. K., & Cialdini, R. B. (2005). Fluency of consumption imagery and the backfire effects of imagery appeals. Journal of Consumer Research, 32, 442–452.
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 123–205.
Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T., Strathman, A. J., & Priester, J. R. (2005). To think or not to think: Exploring two routes to persuasion. In T. C. Brock & M. C. Green (Eds.), Persuasion: Psychological insights and perspectives (2nd ed., pp. 81–116). London: Sage.
Pornpitakpan, C. (2004). The persuasiveness of source credibility: A critical review of five decades’ evidence. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34, 243–281.
Powell, C., Nettelbeck, T., & Burns, N. (2016). Deconstructing intellectual curiosity. Personality and Individual Differences, 95, 147–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.037
Pratkanis, A., & Aronson, E. (2001). Age of propaganda: The everyday use and abuse of persuasion. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Putnam, A. L., & Phelps, R. J. (2017). The citation effect: In-text citations moderately increase belief in trivia claims. Acta Psychologica, 179, 114–123.
Reber, R., & Schwarz, N. (1999). Effects of perceptual fluency on judgments of truth. Consciousness and Cognition, 8, 338–342.
Rocklage, M. D., Rucker, D. D., & Nordgren, L. F. (2018). Persuasion, emotion, and language: The intent to persuade transforms language via emotionality. Psychological Science, 29(5), 749–760. https://doi.org/10.1177/095679761774479. 1-12.
Ross, L., & Ward, A. (1996). Naive realism in everyday life: implications for social conflict and misunderstanding. In E. S. Reed, E. Turiel, & T. Brown (Eds.), Values and knowledge (pp. 103–135). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Russell, J. A. (2003). Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychological Review, 110, 145–172.
Russell, J. A. (2014). Four perspectives on the psychology of emotion: An introduction. Emotion Review, 6, 291.
Scheufele, D. A. (1999). Framing as a theory of media effects. Journal of Communication, 49, 103–122.
Scheufele, D. A., & Iyengar, S. (2015). The state of framing research: A call for new directions. In K. Kenski & K. H. Jamieson (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of political communication (pp. 1–16). Oxford Handbooks Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199793471.013.47
Schwarz, N., Bless, H., Strack, F., Klumpp, G., Rittenauer-Schatka, H., & Simons, A. (1991). Ease of retrieval as information: Another look at the availability heuristic. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 195–202.
Schwarz, N., Newman, E., & Leach, W. (2016). Making the truth stick & the myths fade: Lessons from cognitive psychology. Behavioral Science & Policy, 2, 85–95.
Schwarz, N., Sanna, L. J., Skurnik, I., & Yoon, C. (2007). Metacognitive experiences and the intricacies of setting people straight: Implications for debiasing and public information campaigns. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 127–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(06)39003-X
Sharot, T., Delgado, M. R., & Phelps, E. A. (2004). How emotion enhances the feeling of remembering. Nature Neuroscience, 7, 1376–1380.
Sharot, T., & Garrett, N. (2016). Forming beliefs: Why valence matters. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20, 25–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.11.002
Sherman, G. D., & Haidt, J. (2011). Cuteness and disgust: The humanizing and dehumanizing effects of emotion. Emotion Review, 3(3), 245–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911402396
Shifman, L. (2011). Anatomy of a YouTube meme. New Media & Society, 14(2), 187–203.
Silva, R. R., Garcia-Marques, T., & Reber, R. (2017). The informative value of type of repetition: Perceptual and conceptual fluency influences on judgments of truth. Consciousness and Cognition, 51, 53–67.
Silverman, C. (2015). Lies, damn lies, and viral content: How news websites spread (and debunk) online rumors, unverified claims, and misinformation. New York: Tow Center for Digital Journalism, Columbia Journalism School. Retrieved from https://towcenter.org/research/lies-damn-lies-and-viral-content/
Skurnik, I., Yoon, C., Park, D. C., & Schwarz, N. (2005). How warnings about false claims become recommendations. Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 713–724.
Smith, E. R., & DeCoster, J. (2000). Dual-process models in social and cognitive psychology: Conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 108–131.
Snopes. (2017). Did Hillary Clinton tell FBI’s Mueller to deliver uranium to Russians in 2009 ‘secret tarmac meeting’? Snopes. Retrieved from https://www.snopes.com/hillary-clinton-robert-mueller-uranium/
Song, H., & Schwarz, N. (2008). Fluency and the detection of misleading questions: Low processing fluency attenuates the Moses illusion. Social Cognition, 26, 791–799.
Southwell, B. G., & Thorson, E. A. (2015). The prevalence, consequence, and remedy of misinformation in mass media systems. Journal of Communication, 65, 589–595.
Stanovich, K. E., West, R. F., & Toplak, M. E. (2013). Myside bias, rational thinking, and intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 259–264.
Starbird, K., Arif, A., Wilson, T., Van Koevering, K., Yefimova, K., & Scarnecchia, D. (2018). Ecosystem or echo-system? Exploring content sharing across alternative media domains. In 12th International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM-18) (pp. 365–374). Stanford, CA.
Staw, B. M., Sandelands, L. E., & Dutton, J. E. (1981). Threat rigidity effects in organizational behavior: A multilevel analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26, 501–524. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392337
Steinnes, K. (2017). Cuteness evokes the kama muta emotion and motivates communal sharing. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Oslo.
Stieglitz, S., & Dang-Xuan, L. (2013). Emotions and information diffusion in social media - Sentiment of microblogs and sharing behavior. Journal of Management Information Systems, 29, 217–247. https://doi.org/10.2753/MIS0742-1222290408
Swire, B., Berinsky, A. J., Lewandowsky, S., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2017). Processing political misinformation: Comprehending the Trump phenomenon. Royal Society Open Science, 4, 160802. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160802
Swire, B., Ecker, U. K. H., & Lewandowsky, S. (2017). The role of familiarity in correcting inaccurate information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43, 1948–1961.
Syn, S., & Oh, S. (2015). Why do social network site users share information on Facebook and Twitter? Journal of Information Science, 41, 553–569. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165551515585717
Thorson, K., Vraga, E., & Ekdale, B. (2010). Credibility in context: How uncivil online commentary affects news credibility. Mass Communication and Society, 13, 289–313.
Tormala, Z. L., Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2006). When credibility attacks: The reverse impact of source credibility on persuasion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 684–691.
Turcotte, J., York, C., Irving, J., Scholl, R. M., & Pingree, R. J. (2015). News recommendations from social media opinion leaders: Effects on media trust and information seeking. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 20, 520–535.
von Stumm, S., Hell, B., & Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2011). The hungry mind: Intellectual curiosity is the third pillar of academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 574–588. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611421204
Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359, 1146–1151.
Washburn, A. N., & Skitka, L. J. (2017). Science denial across the political divide: Liberals and conservatives are similarly motivated to deny attitude-inconsistent science. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9, 972–980. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617731500
Watson, D., & Tellegen, A. (1985). Toward a consensual structure of mood. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 219–235.
Weeks, B., & Holbert, R. (2013). Predicting dissemination of news content in social media: A focus on reception, friending, and partisanship. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 90, 212–232.
Weisbuch, M., & Mackie, D. (2009). False fame, perceptual clarity, or persuasion? Flexible fluency attribution in spokesperson familiarity effects. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19, 62–72.
West, R. F., Toplak, M. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (2008). Heuristics and biases as measures of critical thinking: Associations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions. Journal of Education Psychology, 100, 930–941.
Westerman, D., Spence, P. R., & Van Der Heide, B. (2014). Social media as information source: Recency of updates and credibility of information. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19, 171–183.
Whitehead, T. (2016, May 25). Islamic State using kittens to lure jihadists to fight. The Telegraph. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/25/isil-using-kittens-to-lure-jihadists-to-fight/
Whiting, A., & Williams, D. (2013). Why people use social media: a uses and gratifications approach. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 16, 362–369. https://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-06-2013-0041
Yang, H., & Wang, Y. (2015). Social sharing of online videos: Examining American consumers- video sharing attitudes, intent, and behavior. Psychology and Marketing, 32, 907–919.
Berger, J. (2011). Arousal increases social transmission of information. Psychological Science, 22, 891-893.
Wagner, M. W., & Gruszczynski, M. (2016). When framing matters: How partisan and journalistic frames affect individual opinions and party identification. Journalism & Communication Monographs, 18, 5-48.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Paletz, S.B.F., Auxier, B.E., Golonka, E.M. (2019). Reactions to the Message and Messenger. In: A Multidisciplinary Framework of Information Propagation Online. SpringerBriefs in Complexity. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16413-3_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16413-3_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-16412-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-16413-3
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)