Abstract
Impervious surfaces in urban areas generate substantial volumes of polluted surface runoff, resulting in flooding and degradation of waterway ecosystems. Urban trees can help to mitigate the adverse effects of runoff by restoring key hydrological processes, including canopy interception, throughfall, stemflow, and transpiration. Understanding how trees contribute to these processes can guide tree species selection and the design of green infrastructure elements. Climate, specifically the distribution of precipitation and evaporative demand, will ultimately determine the extent to which trees contribute to each process. In general, canopy interception, throughfall, stemflow, and transpiration will be greater where the rainfall distribution is dominated by smaller events separated by longer inter-event periods with higher evaporative demand. However, in any given climate, different tree species, and more importantly the traits which define them, can significantly alter their role in the urban hydrological cycle. For example, species with large, dense canopies (high leaf area) are likely to show greater canopy interception loss, resulting in lower throughfall and stemflow and reduced surface runoff. Additionally, larger trees with high leaf area can potentially transpire a significant amount of captured runoff when combined with stormwater control measures. However, selecting species to maximise retention and detention of runoff must do so without compromising other highly valued ecosystem services provided by trees. This chapter reviews the studies which contribute to our current understanding of how different species contribute to hydrological processes in the built environment. We discuss how this understanding has been integrated into urban hydrological models as well as opportunities for future studies to continue their development.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abas MR, Ahmad-Shah A, Awang MN (1992) Fluxes of ions in precipitation, throughfall and stemflow in an urban forest in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Environ Pollut 75:209–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(92)90041-8
Abhijith KV, Kumar P, Gallagher J et al (2017) Air pollution abatement performances of green infrastructure in open road and built-up street canyon environments – a review. Atmos Environ 162:71–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.05.014
Alves PL, Formiga KTM, Traldi MAB (2018) Rainfall interception capacity of tree species used in urban reforestation. Urban Ecosyst 21:697–706. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-018-0753-y
André F, Jonard M, Ponette Q (2008) Influence of species and rain event characteristics on stemflow volume in a temperate mixed oak-beech stand. Hydrol Process 22:4455–4466. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7048
Asadian Y, Weiler M (2009) A new approach in measuring rainfall interception by urban trees in coastal British Columbia. Water Qual Res J Can 44:16–25. https://doi.org/10.2166/wqrj.2009.003
Ashley RM, Balmforth DJ, Saul AJ et al (2005) Flooding in the future-predicting climate change, risks and responses in urban areas. Water Sci Technol 52:265–273. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2005.0142
Aston AR (1979) Rainfall interception by eight small trees. J Hydrol 42:383–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(79)90057-X
Ballinas M, Barradas VL (2016) Transpiration and stomatal conductance as potential mechanisms to mitigate the heat load in Mexico City. Urban For Urban Green 20:152–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.08.004
Baptista MD, Livesley SJ, Parmehr EG et al (2018a) Variation in leaf area density drives the rainfall storage capacity of individual urban tree species. Hydrol Process 32:3729–3740. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13255
Baptista MD, Livesley SJ, Parmehr EG et al (2018b) Terrestrial laser scanning to predict canopy area metrics, water storage capacity and throughfall redistribution in urban trees. Remote Sens 10:1958. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10121958
Bartens J, Day SD, Harris JR et al (2009) Transpiration and root development of urban trees in structural soil stormwater reservoirs. Environ Manag 44:646–657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-009-9366-9
Berland A, Shiflett SA, Shuster WD et al (2017) The role of trees in urban stormwater management. Landsc Urban Plan 162:167–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.02.017
Bialecki MB, Fahey RT, Scharenbroch B (2018) Variation in urban forest productivity and response to extreme drought across a large metropolitan region. Urban Ecosyst 21:157–169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-017-0692-z
Brown RA, Hunt WF (2011) Impacts of media depth on effluent water quality and hydrologic performance of undersized bioretention cells. J Irrig Drain Eng 137:132–143. https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000167
Burns MJ, Fletcher TD, Walsh CJ et al (2012) Hydrologic shortcomings of conventional urban stormwater management and opportunities for reform. Landsc Urban Plan 105:230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.12.012
Bush SE, Pataki DE, Hultine KR et al (2008) Wood anatomy constrains stomatal responses to atmospheric vapor pressure deficit in irrigated, urban trees. Oecologia 156:13–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-008-0966-5
Calder IR (1996) Dependence of rainfall interception on drop size: 1. Development of the two-layer stochastic model. J Hydrol 185:363–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(95)02998-2
Carlyle-Moses DE (2004) A reply to R. Keim’s comment on “Measurement and modelling of growing-season canopy water fluxes in a mature mixed deciduous forest stand, southern Ontario, Canada”. Agric For Meteorol 124:281–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2004.02.004
Carlyle-Moses DE, Gash JHC (2011) Rainfall interception loss by forest canopies. In: Levia DF, Carlyle-Moses DE, Tanaka T (eds) Forest hydrology and biogeochemistry: synthesis of past research and future directions, Ecological Studies 216. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 407–423. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1363-5_20
Carlyle-Moses DE, Price AG (2006) Growing-season stemflow production within a deciduous forest of southern Ontario. Hydrol Process 20:3651–3663. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6380
Carlyle-Moses DE, Schooling JT (2015) Tree traits and meteorological factors influencing the initiation and rate of stemflow from isolated deciduous trees. Hydrol Process 29:4083–4099. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10519
Carlyle-Moses DE, Iida S, Germer S et al (2018) Expressing stemflow commensurate with its ecohydrological importance. Adv Water Resour 121:472–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2018.08.015
Chair JT (2000) The hydrological effects of urban forests, with reference to the maritime Pacific Northwest. Landscape and Liveable Environments, Tech Bull, University of British Columbia No. 6 n/a-n/a
Chen WY (2015) The role of urban green infrastructure in offsetting carbon emissions in 35 major Chinese cities: a nationwide estimate. Cities 44:112–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2015.01.005
Chocat B, Krebs P, Marsalek J et al (2001) Urban drainage redefined: from stormwater removal to integrated management. Water Sci Technol 43:61–68. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2001.0251
Clar ML, Green R (1993) Design manual for use of bioretention in stormwater management. Prince George’s County Govt., Watershed Protection Branch, Landover
Coutts AM, Tapper NJ, Beringer J et al (2013) Watering our cities: the capacity for Water Sensitive Urban Design to support urban cooling and improve human thermal comfort in the Australian context. Prog Phys Geogr 37:2–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133312461032
Craul PJ (1999) Urban soils: applications and practices. Wiley, New York
da Silva LF, Lima AMLP, Filho DS et al (2010) Rainfall interception by two arboreal species in urban green area (In Portuguese). Cerne Lavras 16:547–555. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-77602010000400014
DeBusk KM, Wynn TM (2011) Storm-water bioretention for runoff quality and quantity mitigation. J Environ Eng 137:800–808. https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000388
Deguchi A, Hattori S, Park H-T (2006) The influence of seasonal changes in canopy structure on interception loss: application of the revised Gash model. J Hydrol 318:80–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.06.005
Denich C, Bradford A (2010) Estimation of evapotranspiration from bioretention areas using weighing lysimeters. J Hydrol Eng 15:522–530. https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0000134
Denman EC, May PB, Moore GM (2016) The potential role of urban forests in removing nutrients from stormwater. J Environ Qual 45:207–214. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2015.01.0047
Dolowitz DP, Bell S, Keeley M (2018) Retrofitting urban drainage infrastructure: green or grey? Urban Water J 15:83–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2017.1396352
Dunkerley DL (2009) Evaporation of impact water droplets in interception processes: historical precedence of the hypothesis and a brief literature overview. J Hydrol 376:599–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.08.004
Eger CG, Chandler DG, Driscoll CT (2017) Hydrologic processes that govern stormwater infrastructure behaviour. Hydrol Process 31:4492–4506. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.11353
Ellis JB (2013) Sustainable surface water management and green infrastructure in UK urban catchment planning. J Environ Plan Manag 56:24–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2011.648752
Elmqvist T, Fragkias M, Goodness J et al (2013) Stewardship of the biosphere in the urban era. In: Urbanization, biodiversity and ecosystem services: challenges and opportunities. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 719–746
Emmanuel R, Loconsole A (2015) Green infrastructure as an adaptation approach to tackling urban overheating in the Glasgow Clyde Valley Region, UK. Landsc Urban Plan 138:71–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.02.012
Fathizadeh O, Attarod P, Keim RF et al (2014) Spatial heterogeneity and temporal stability of throughfall under individual Quercus brantii trees. Hydrol Process 28:1124–1136. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9638
Fathizadeh O, Hosseini SM, Zimmerman A et al (2017) Estimating linkages between forest structural variables and rainfall interception parameters in semi-arid deciduous oak forest stands. Sci Total Environ 601–602:1824–1837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.233
Fletcher TD, Andrieu H, Hamel P (2013) Understanding, management and modelling of urban hydrology and its consequences for receiving waters: a state of the art. Adv Water Resour 51:261–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.09.001
Fletcher TD, Shuster W, Hunt WF et al (2015) SUDS, LID, BMPs, WSUD and more – the evolution and application of terminology surrounding urban drainage. Urban Water J 12:525–542. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2014.916314
Gash JHC, Lloyd CR, Lachaud G (1995) Estimating sparse forest rainfall interception with an analytical model. J Hydrol 170:79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(95)02697-N
Geißler C, Lang AC, von Oheimb G et al (2012) Impact of tree saplings on the kinetic energy of rainfall-The importance of stand density, species identity and tree architecture in subtropical forests in China. Agric For Meteorol 156:31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2011.12.005
Ghimire CP, Bruijnzeel LA, Lubczynski MW et al (2017) Measurement and modeling of rainfall interception by two differently aged secondary forests in upland eastern Madagascar. J Hydrol 545:212–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.10.032
Goebes P, Bruelheide H, Härdtle W et al (2015) Species-specific effects on throughfall kinetic energy in subtropical forest plantations are related to leaf traits and tree architecture. PLoS One 10:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0128084
Gómez JA, Giráldez JV, Fereres E (2001) Rainfall interception by olive trees in relation to leaf area. Agric Water Manag 49:65–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3774(00)00116-5
Gotsch SG, Draguljić D, Williams CJ (2018) Evaluating the effectiveness of urban trees to mitigate storm water runoff via transpiration and stemflow. Urban Ecosyst 21:183–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-017-0693-y
Grabosky J, Bassuk N (1995) A new urban tree soil to safely increase rooting volumes under sidewalks. J Arboric 21:187–187
Green T, Kronenberg J, Andersson E et al (2016) Insurance value of green infrastructure in and around cites. Ecosystems 19:1051–1063. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-016-9986-x
Grey V, Livesley SJ, Fletcher TD et al (2018a) Establishing street trees in stormwater control measures can double tree growth when extended waterlogging is avoided. Landsc Urban Plan 178:122–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.06.002
Grey V, Livesley SJ, Fletcher TD et al (2018b) Tree pits to help mitigate runoff in dense urban areas. J Hydrol 565:400–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.08.038
Grimmond CSB, Oke TR (1991) An evapotranspiration-interception model for urban areas. Water Resour Res 27:1739–1755. https://doi.org/10.1029/91WR00557
Guevara-Escobar A, González-Sosa E, Véliz-Chávez C et al (2007) Rainfall interception and distribution patterns of gross precipitation around an isolated Ficus benjamina tree in an urban area. J Hydrol 333:532–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.09.017
Hamel P, McHugh I, Coutts A et al (2014) An automated chamber system to measure field evapotranspiration rates. J Hydrol Eng 20:04014037. https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(asce)he.1943-5584.0001006
Helvey JD, Patric JH (1965) Canopy and litter interception of rainfall by hardwoods of eastern United States. Water Resour Res 1:193–206. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR001i002p00193
Herbst M, Rosier PTW, McNeil DD et al (2008) Seasonal variability of interception evaporation from the canopy of a mixed deciduous forest. Agric For Meteorol 148:1655–1667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2008.05.011
Herwitz SR (1985) Interception storage capacities of tropical rainforest canopy trees. J Hydrol 77:237–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(85)90209-4
Herwitz SR (1986) Infiltration-excess caused by stemflow in a cyclone-prone tropical rainforest. Earth Surf Process Landf 11:401–412. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290110406
Hess A, Wadzuk B, Welker A (2017) Evapotranspiration in rain gardens using weighing lysimeters. J Irrig Drain Eng 143:04017004. https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0001157
Holder CD (2013) Effects of leaf hydrophobicity and water droplet retention on canopy storage capacity. Ecohydrology 6:483–490. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.1278
Houle JJ, Roseen RM, Ballestero TP (2013) Comparison of maintenance cost, labor demands, and system performance for LID and conventional stormwater management. J Environ Eng 139:932–938. https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000698
Huang JY, Black TA, Jassal RS et al (2017) Modelling rainfall interception by urban trees. Can Water Res J 42:336–348. https://doi.org/10.1080/07011784.2017.1375865
Inkiläinen ENM, McHale MR, Blank GB et al (2013) The role of the residential urban forest in regulating throughfall: a case study in Raleigh, North Carolina, USA. Landsc Urban Plan 119:91–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.07.002
Johnson MS, Lehmann J (2006) Double-funneling of trees: stemflow and root-induced preferential flow. Écoscience 13:324–333. https://doi.org/10.2980/i1195-6860-13-3-324.1
Kaźmierczak A, Cavan G (2011) Surface water flooding risk to urban communities: analysis of vulnerability, hazard and exposure. Landsc Urban Plan 103:185–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.07.008
Keim RF, Skaugset AE, Weiler M (2006) Storage of water on vegetation under simulated rainfall of varying intensity. Adv Water Resour 29:974–986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2005.07.017
Kermavnar J, Vilhar U (2017) Canopy precipitation interception in urban forests in relation to stand structure. Urban Ecosyst 20:1373–1387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-017-0689-7
King BP, Harrison SJ (1998) Throughfall patterns under an isolated oak. Weather 53:111–121. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1477-8696.1998.tb03973.x
Klaassen W, Bosweld F, de Water E (1998) Water storage and evaporation as constituents of rainfall interception. J Hydrol 212–213:36–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(98)00200-5
Konarska J, Uddling J, Holmer B et al (2016) Transpiration of urban trees and its cooling effect in a high latitude city. Int J Biometeorol 60:159–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-015-1014-x
Kuehler E, Hathaway J, Tirpak A (2017) Quantifying the benefits of urban forest systems as a component of the green infrastructure stormwater treatment network. Ecohydrology 10:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.1813
Levia DF, Herwitz SR (2005) Interspecific variation in bark water storage capacity of three deciduous tree species in relation to stemflow yield and solute flux to forest soils. Catena 64:117–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2005.08.001
Levia DF, Keim RF, Carlyle-Moses DE et al (2011) Throughfall and stemflow in wooded ecosystems. In: Levia DF, Carlyle-Moses DE, Tanaka T (eds) Forest hydrology and biogeochemistry: synthesis of past research and future directions, Ecological Studies 216. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 425–443. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1363-5_21
Li H, Sharkey LJ, Hunt WF et al (2009) Mitigation of impervious surface hydrology using bioretention in North Carolina and Maryland. J Hydrol Eng 14:407–415. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0699(2009)14:4(407)
Li X, Xiao Q, Niu J et al (2016) Process-based rainfall interception by small trees in Northern China: the effect of rainfall traits and crown structure characteristics. Agric For Meteorol 218–219:65–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2015.11.017
Litvak E, McCarthy HR, Pataki DE (2012) Transpiration sensitivity of urban trees in a semi-arid climate is constrained by xylem vulnerability to cavitation. Tree Physiol 32:373–388. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps015
Litvak E, Bijoor NS, Pataki DE (2014) Adding trees to irrigation turfgrass lawns may be a water-saving measure in semi-arid environments. Ecohydrology 7:1314–1330. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.1458
Litvak E, McCarthy HR, Pataki DE (2017) A method for estimating transpiration of irrigated urban trees in California. Landsc Urban Plan 158:48–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.09.021
Liu W, Chen W, Peng C (2014) Assessing the effectiveness of green infrastructures on urban flooding reduction: a community scale study. Ecol Model 291:6–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2014.07.012
Livesley SJ, Baudinette B, Glover D (2014) Rainfall interception and stem flow by eucalypt street trees – the impacts of canopy density and bark type. Urban For Urban Green 13:192–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2013.09.001
Livesley SJ, McPherson EG, Calfapietra C (2016) The urban forest and ecosystem services: impacts on urban water, heat, and pollution cycles at the tree, street, and city scale. J Environ Qual 45:119–124. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2015.11.0567
Llorens P, Gallart F (2000) A simplified method for forest water storage capacity measurement. J Hydrol 240:131–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(00)00339-5
Mangangka IR, Liu A, Egodawatta P (2015) Performance characterisation of a stormwater treatment bioretention basin. J Environ Manag 150:173–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.11.007
Maragno D, Gaglio M, Robbi M et al (2018) Fine-scale analysis of urban flooding reduction from green infrastructure: an ecosystem services approach to the management of water flows. Ecol Model 386:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.08.002
May PB, Livesley SJ, Shears I (2013) Managing and monitoring tree health and soil water status during extreme drought in Melbourne, Victoria. Arboricult Urban For 39:136–145
McCarthy HR, Pataki DE, Jenerette GD (2011) Plant water-use efficiency as a metric of urban ecosystem services. Ecol Appl 21:3115–3127. https://doi.org/10.1890/11-0048.1
McPherson G, Simpson JR, Peper PJ et al (1999) Benefit-cost analysis of Modesto’s municipal urban forest. J Arboric 25:235–248
McPherson G, Simpson JR, Peper PJ et al (2005) Municipal forest benefits and costs in five US cities. J For 103:411–416. https://doi.org/10.1093/jof/103.8.411
McPherson EG, van Doorn N, de Goede J (2016) Structure, function and value of street trees in California, USA. Urban For Urban Green 17:104–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.03.013
Meerow S, Newell JP (2017) Spatial planning for multifunctional green infrastructure: growing resilience in Detroit. Landsc Urban Plan 159:62–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.10.005
Meineke EK, Frank SD (2018) Water availability drives urban tree growth responses to herbivory and warming. J Appl Ecol 55:1701–1713. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13130
Melbourne Water (2005) WSUD engineering procedures: stormwater. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne
Mitchell VG, Cleugh HA, Grimmond CSB et al (2008) Linking urban water balance and energy balance models to analyse urban design options. Hydrol Process 22:2891–2900. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6868
Monteith JL, Unsworth MH (2008) Principles of environmental physics, 3rd edn. Academic, London
Moors EJ, Grimmond CSB, Veldhuizen AA et al (2014) Urban water balance and hydrology models to support sustainable urban planning. In: Chrysoulakis N, de Castro EA, Moors EJ (eds) Understanding urban metabolism: a tool for urban planning. Routledge, New York, pp 106–117
Mullaney J, Lucke T, Trueman SJ (2015) A review of benefits and challenges in growing street trees in paved urban environments. Landsc Urban Plan 134:157–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.10.013
Murakami S (2006) A proposal for a new forest canopy interception mechanism: splash droplet evaporation. J Hydrol 318:72–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.07.002
Nanko K, Onda Y, Ito A et al (2011) Spatial variability of throughfall under a single tree: experimental study of rainfall amount, raindrops, and kinetic energy. Agric For Meteorol 151:1173–1182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2011.04.006
NCDEQ (2017) C-0. Minimum design criteria for all SCMs. In: Stormwater design manual. North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality, Raleigh
Neumann JE, Price J, Chinowsky P et al (2015) Climate change risks to US infrastructure: impacts on roads, bridges, coastal development, and urban drainage. Clim Chang 131:97–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-1037-4
Nichols PWB, Lucke T (2015) Local level stormwater harvesting and reuse: a practical solution to the water security challenges faced by urban trees. Sustainability 7:8635–8648. https://doi.org/10.3390/su7078635
Nitschke CR, Nichols S, Allen K et al (2017) The influence of climate and drought on urban tree growth in southeast Australia and the implications for future growth under climate change. Landsc Urban Plan 167:275–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.06.012
Nocco MA, Rouse SE, Balster NJ (2016) Vegetation type alters water and nitrogen budgets in a controlled, replicated experiment on residential-sized rain gardens planted with prairie, shrub, and turfgrass. Urban Ecosyst 19:1665–1691. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-016-0568-7
Nordman EE, Isely E, Isely P et al (2018) Benefit-cost analysis of stormwater green infrastructure practices for Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA. J Clean Prod 200:501–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.152
Nowak DJ, McBride JR, Beatty RA (1990) Newly planted street tree growth and mortality. J Arboric 16:124–130
Nowak DJ, Greenfield EJ, Hoehn RE et al (2013) Carbon storage and sequestration by trees in urban and community areas of the United States. Environ Pollut 178:229–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.03.019
Nytch CJ, Melendez-Ackerman EJ, Perez M-E, Ortiz-Zayas JR (2018) Rainfall interception by six urban trees in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Urban Ecosyst 22:103–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-018-0768-4. Published online
Ordóñez-Barona C, Sabetski V, Millward AA et al (2018) De-icing salt contamination reduces urban tree performance in structural soil cells. Environ Pollut 234:562–571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.101
Ossola A, Hahs AK, Livesley SJ (2015) Habitat complexity influences fine scale hydrological processes and the incidence of stormwater runoff in managed urban ecosystems. J Environ Manag 159:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.05.002
Page JL, Winston RJ, Hunt WF (2015a) Soils beneath suspended pavements: an opportunity for stormwater control and treatment. Ecol Eng 82:40–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.04.060
Page JL, Winston RJ, Mayes DB et al (2015b) Retrofitting with innovative stormwater control measures: hydrologic mitigation of impervious cover in the municipal right-of-way. J Hydrol 527:923–932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.04.046
Pataki DE, McCarthy HR, Litvak E et al (2011) Transpiration of urban forests in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. Ecol Appl 21:661–677. https://doi.org/10.1890/09-1717.1
Payne EGI, Hatt BE, Deletic A et al (2015) Adoption guidelines for stormwater biofiltration systems. Cooperative Research Centre for Water Sensitive Cities, Melbourne
Payne EGI, Pham T, Deletic A et al (2018) Which species? A decision-support tool to guide plant selection in stormwater biofilters. Adv Water Resour 113:86–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2017.12.022
Pereira FL, Gash JHC, David JS et al (2009) Evaporation of intercepted rainfall from isolated evergreen oak trees: do the crowns behave like wet bulbs? Agric For Meteorol 149:667–679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2008.10.013
Peters EB, McFadden JP, Montgomery RA (2010) Biological and environmental controls on tree transpiration in a suburban landscape. J Geophys Res 15:G04006. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JG001266
Pretzsch H, del Rio M, Ammer C et al (2015) Growth and yield of mixed versus pure stands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) analysed along a productivity gradient through Europe. Eur J For Res 134:927–947. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-015-0900-4
Rhoades RW, Stipes RJ (1999) Growth of trees on the Virginia Tech campus in response to various factors. J Arboric 25:211–217
Riikonen A, Järvi L, Nikinmaa E (2016) Environmental and crown related factors affecting street tree transpiration in Helsinki, Finland. Urban Ecosyst 19:1693–1715. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-016-0561-1
Rodriguez FR, Andrieu H, Morena F (2008) A distributed hydrological model for urbanized areas – model development and application to case studies. J Hydrol 351:268–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.12.007
Rosado BHP, Holder CD (2013) The significance of leaf water repellency in ecohydrological research: a review. Ecohydrology 6:150–161. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.1340
Rutter AJ, Kershaw KA, Robins PC, Morton AJ (1971) A predictive model of rainfall interception in forests, 1. Derivation of the model from observations in a plantation of Corsican pine. Agric Meteorol 9:367–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-1571(71)90034-3
Sanders RA (1986) Urban vegetation impacts on the hydrology of Dayton, Ohio. Urban Ecol 9:361–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4009(86)90009-4
Sanusi R, Johnstone D, May P et al (2017) Microclimate benefits that different street tree species provide to sidewalk pedestrians relate to differences in plant area index. Landsc Urban Plan 157:502–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.08.010
Savi T, Bertuzzi S, Branca S et al (2015) Drought-induced xylem cavitation and hydraulic deterioration: risk factors for urban trees under climate change? New Phytol 205:1106–1116. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13112
Scharenbroch BC, Morgenroth J, Maule B (2016) Tree species suitability to bioswales and impact on the urban water budget. J Environ Qual 45:199–206. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2015.01.0060
Schooling JT, Carlyle-Moses DE (2015) The influence of rainfall depth class and deciduous tree traits on stemflow production in an urban park. Urban Ecosyst 18:1261–1284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-015-0441-0
Schooling JT, Levia DF, Carlyle-Moses DE et al (2017) Stemflow chemistry in relation to tree size: a preliminary investigation of eleven urban park trees in British Columbia, Canada. Urban For Urban Green 21:129–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.11.013
Schwärzel K, Ebermann S, Schalling N (2012) Evidence of double-funneling effect of beech trees by visualization of flow pathways using dye tracer. J Hydrol 470–471:184–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.08.048
Shahidan MF (2015) Potential of individual and cluster tree cooling effect performances through tree canopy density model evaluation in improving urban microclimate. Curr World Environ 10:398–413. https://doi.org/10.12944/CWE.10.2.04
Shuster WD, Bonta J, Thurston H et al (2005) Impacts of impervious surface on watershed hydrology: a review. Urban Water J 2:263–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/15730620500386529
Sjöman H, Nielsen AB (2010) Selecting trees for urban paved sites in Scandinavia – a review of information on stress tolerance and its relation to the requirements of tree planners. Urban For Urban Green 9:281–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2010.04.001
Soares AL, Rego FC, McPherson EG et al (2011) Benefits and costs of street trees in Lisbon, Portugal. Urban For Urban Green 10:69–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2010.12.001
Šraj M, Brilly M, Mikoš M (2008) Rainfall interception by two deciduous Mediterranean forests of contrasting stature in Slovenia. Agric For Meteorol 148:121–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2007.09.007
Staelens J, De Schrijver A, Verheyen K et al (2006) Spatial variability and temporal stability of throughfall water under a dominant beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) tree in relationship to canopy cover. J Hydrol 3–4:651–662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.032
Staelens J, De Schrijver A, Verheyen K et al (2008) Rainfall partitioning into throughfall, stemflow, and interception within a single beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) canopy: influence of foliation, rain event characteristics, and meteorology. Hydrol Process 22:22–45. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6610
Stagoll K, Lindenmayer DB, Knight E et al (2012) Large trees are keystone structures in urban parks. Conserv Lett 5:115–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2011.00216.x
Stewart JB (1977) Evaporation from the wet canopy of a pine forest. Water Resour Res 13:915–921. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR013i006p00915
Stovin VR, Jorgensen A, Clayden A (2008) Street trees and stormwater management. Arboricult J 30:297–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071375.2008.9747509
Szota C, McCarthy MJ, Sanders GJ et al (2018) Tree water-use strategies to improve stormwater retention performance of biofiltration systems. Water Res 144:285–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.10.021
Szota C, Coutts AM, Thom JK et al (2019) Street tree stormwater control measures can reduce runoff but may not benefit established trees. Landsc Urban Plan 182:144–155
Thom JK, Coutts AM, Broadbent AM et al (2016) The influence of increasing tree cover on mean radiant temperature across a mixed development suburb in Adelaide, Australia. Urban For Urban Green 20:233–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.08.016
Threlfall CG, Ossola A, Hahs AK et al (2016) Variation in vegetation structure and composition across urban green space types. Front Ecol Evol 4:66,. Article 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2016.00066
Toba T, Ohta T (2005) An observational study of the factors that influence interception loss in boreal and temperate forests. J Hydrol 313:208–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.03.003
Valente F, David JS, Gash JHC (1997) Modelling interception loss for two sparse eucalypt and pine forests in central Portugal using reformulated Rutter and Gash analytical models. J Hydrol 190:141–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(96)03066-1
Van Stan JT, Levia DF (2010) Inter- and intraspecific variation of stemflow production from Fagus gradifolia Ehrh. (American beech) and Liriodendron tulipifera L. (yellow popular) in relation to bark microrelief in the eastern United States. Ecohydrology 3:11–19. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.83
Van Stan JT, Siegert C, Levia DF et al (2011) Effects of wind-driven rainfall on stemflow generation between codominant tree species with differing crown characteristics. Agric For Meteorol 151:1277–1286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2011.05.008
Van Stan JT, Van Stan JH, Levia DF (2014) Meteorological influences on stemflow generation across diameter size classes of two morphologically distinct deciduous species. Int J Biometeorol 58:2059–2069. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-014-0807-7
Van Stan JT, Norman Z, Meghoo A et al (2017) Edge-to-stem variability in wet-canopy evaporation from an urban tree row. Bound-Layer Meteorol 165:295–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-017-0277-7
Voskamp IM, Van de Ven FHM (2015) Planning support system for climate adaptation: composing effective sets of blue-green measures to reduce urban vulnerability to extreme weather events. Build Environ 83:159–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2014.07.018
Wadzuk BM, Hickman JM Jr, Traver RG (2015) Understanding the role of evapotranspiration in bioretention: Mesocosm study. J Sustain Water Built Environ 1:04014002. https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/JSWBAY.0000794
Wallace J, McJanet D (2006) On interception modelling of a lowland coastal rainforest in northern Queensland, Australia. J Hydrol 329:477–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.03.003
Walsh CJ, Roy AH, Feminella JW et al (2005) The urban stream syndrome: current knowledge and the search for a cure. J North Am Benthol Soc 24:706–723. https://doi.org/10.1899/04-028.1
Wang J, Endreny TA, Nowak DJ (2008) Mechanistic simulation of tree effects in an urban water balance model. J Am Water Resour Assoc 44:75–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2007.00139.x
Wei X, Liu S, Zhou G et al (2005) Hydrologic processes in major types of Chinese forest. Hydrol Process 19:63–75. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5777
Winston RJ, Dorsey JD, Hunt WF (2016) Quantifying volume reduction and peak flow mitigation for three bioretention cells in clay soils in northeast Ohio. Sci Total Environ 553:83–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.081
Xiao Q, McPherson EG (2002) Rainfall interception by Santa Monica’s municipal urban forest. Urban Ecosyst 6:291–302. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:UECO.0000004828.05143.67
Xiao Q, McPherson EG (2011a) Rainfall interception of three trees in Oakland, California. Urban Ecosyst 14:755–769. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-011-0192-5
Xiao Q, McPherson EG (2011b) Performance of engineered soil and trees in a parking lot bioswale. Urban Water J 8:241–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2011.596213
Xiao Q, McPherson EG (2016) Surface water storage capacity of twenty tree species in Davis, California. J Environ Qual 45:188–198. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2015.02.0092
Xiao Q, McPherson EG, Simpson JR et al (1998) Rainfall interception by Sacramento’s urban forest. J Arboric 24:235–244
Xiao Q, McPherson EG, Forest U et al (2000a) A new approach to modeling tree rainfall interception. J Geophys Res 105:173–129. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JD900343
Xiao Q, McPherson EG, Ustin SL et al (2000b) Winter rainfall interception by two mature open-grown trees in Davis, California. Hydrol Process 14:763–784. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(200003)14:4<763::AID-HYP971>3.0.CO;2-7
Yuan J, Dunnett N, Stovin V (2017) The influence of vegetation on rain garden hydrological performance. Urban Water J 14:1083–1089. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2017.1363251
Zabret K, Rakovec J, Šraj M (2018) Influence of meteorological variables on rainfall partitioning for deciduous and coniferous tree species in urban area. J Hydrol 558:29–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.01.025
Zeng N, Shuttleworth JW, Gash JHC (2000) Influence of temporal variability of rainfall on interception loss. Part I. Point analysis. J Hydrol 228:228–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(00)00140-2
Zhang L, Dawes WR, Walker GR (2001) Response of mean annual evapotranspiration to vegetation changes at catchment scale. Water Resour Res 37:701–708. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000WR900325
Zipper SC, Schatz J, Kucharik CJ et al (2017) Urban heat island-induced increases in evapotranspirative demand. Geophys Res Lett 44:873–881. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL072190
Zölch T, Maderspacher J, Wamsler C et al (2016) Using green infrastructure for urban climate-proofing: an evaluation of heat mitigation measures at the micro-scale. Urban For Urban Green 20:305–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.09.011
Zölch T, Henze L, Keilholz P (2017) Regulating urban surface runoff through nature-based solutions – an assessment at the micro-scale. Environ Res 157:135–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.05.023
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Carlyle-Moses, D.E., Livesley, S., Baptista, M.D., Thom, J., Szota, C. (2020). Urban Trees as Green Infrastructure for Stormwater Mitigation and Use. In: Levia, D.F., Carlyle-Moses, D.E., Iida, S., Michalzik, B., Nanko, K., Tischer, A. (eds) Forest-Water Interactions. Ecological Studies, vol 240. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26086-6_17
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26086-6_17
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-26085-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-26086-6
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)