Abstract
Milk fat has been acclaimed as an indispensable superfood as its nutritional and sensory attributes offer plenty of health benefits (Achaya, 1997). It possesses good flavour, pleasant aroma, high calorific value, besides being a source of valuable nutrients such as fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids. The prices of milk fat have shown upward trend due to the growing demand for it in developed countries which has been attributed to the shift in the opinion of the health concern related to its consumption (OECD/FAO, 2018). International Dairy Federation (IDF) has also noted that over the years there has been a shift in demand from vegetable oil based substitutes to butter and dairy fat due to positive health assessment of milk fat and its sensory properties (IDF, 2018). Increased price and fluctuation in its seasonal availability offers an advantage to the milk fat manufacturers to fraudulently adulterate it with cheaper oils/fats to reduce production costs and increase profit margins. Economic advantage of replacing high-priced fats and oils with low-priced oils without labeling the product accordingly escalates the adulteration of expensive oils and fats such as milk fat. This also poses a risk to human health and decreases its functional value (Ntakatsane, Liu, & Zhou, 2013). Characterization of milk fat for its purity is an absolute necessity in order to ensure a constant well-defined quality. Detection of adulterants in milk fat has always been a challenge because of the variable composition of the triglycerides present. The challenge to detect foreign fats in milk become bigger because of the seasonal, species or breeds related variation in the properties of milk fat. Further, the advent of hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) industry in the middle of the twentieth century led to large scale adulteration of milk fat with HVO due to the matching physical properties of both fats. Studies related to the detection and quantification of foreign fats in dairy products have been conducted for many decades and constitute priority areas in many research centers (Fontecha, Mayo, Toledano, & Juárez, 2006; Lipp, 1996; Parodi, 1971; Rebechi, Vélez, Vaira, & Perotti, 2016; Timms, 1980).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Achaya, K. T. (1997). Ghee, vanaspati and special fats in India. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
Akoh, C. (2017). Food lipids: Chemistry, nutrition, and biotechnology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group.
Aktaş, N., & Kaya, M. (2001). Detection of beef body fat and margarine in butterfat by differential scanning calorimetry. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 66, 795–801. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013196106365
Amrutha Kala, A. L. (2013). Detection of possible adulteration in commercial ghee samples using low-resolution gas chromatography triglyceride profiles. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 66, 346–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0307.12049
ANMAT (2011). Código Alimentario Argentino. (Chap. 8) Alimentos Lácteos. Retrieved 28 October, 2018, from http://www.anmat.gov.ar/codigoa/caa1.htm
Bartlet, J. C., & Chapman, D. G. (1961). Butter adulteration, detection of hydrogenated fats in butter fat by measurement of cis-trans conjugated unsaturation. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 9, 50–53.
BIS. (1966). Indian standards. Methods for sampling and test for ghee (butterfat). IS 3508: 1960, Amended 2013. New Delhi, India: Bureau of Indian Standards.
Chen, J. T., Wesley, R., Shamburek, R. D., Pucino, F., & Csako, G. (2005). Meta-analysis of natural therapies for hyperlipidemia: Plant sterols and stanols versus policosanol. Pharmacotherapy, 25, 171–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2006.07.040
Chowdhury, K., Banu, L. A., Khan, S., & Latif, A. (2007). Studies on the fatty acid composition of edible oil. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 42(3), 311−316.
Commission Regulation (EC) No 213/2001. (2001). Methods for the analysis and quality evaluation of milk and milk products. Commission Regulation (EC) No. 213/01 of 9 January. Official Journal of the European Community, L37, 42–99.
Coni, E., Di Pasquale, M., Coppolelli, P., & Bocca, A. (1994). Detection of animal fats in butter by differential scanning calorimetry: A pilot study. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 71, 807–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02540453
Costa, J., Mafra, I., & Oliveira, M. B. P. P. (2012). Advances in vegetable oil authentication by DNA-based markers. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 26, 43–55.
Destaillats, F., de Wispelaere, M., Joffre, F., Golay, P. A., Hug, B., Giuffrida, F., Fauconnot, L., & Dionisi, F. (200 6). Authenticity of milk fat by fast analysis of triacylglycerols: Application to the detection of partially hydrogenated vegetable oils. Journal of Chromatography. A, 1131, 227–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2006.07.040
Di Pinto, A., Terio, V., Marchetti, P., Bottaro, M., Mottola, A., Bozzo, G., Bonerba, E., Ceci, E., & Tantillo, G. (2017). DNA-based approach for species identification of goat-milk products. Food Chemistry, 229, 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.02.067
Dilip, P., Bindal, M. P., & Panda, D. (1998). Detection of adulteration in ghee with animal body fats and vegetable oils using opacity test. Journal of Dairying, Foods and Home Sciences, 17, 31–36.
DIN 10336: 1994-09. (1994). Nachweis und Bestimmung von Fremdfetten in Milchfett anhand einer gaschromatographischen Triglyceridanalyse. Berlin, Germany: BeuthVerlag GmbH.
Fadzlillah, N. A., Rohman, A., Rosman, A. S., Yusof, F. M., Ismail, A., Mustaffa, S., Minhat, A. E., & Khatib, A. (2016). Differentiation of fatty acid composition of butter adulterated with lard using gas chromatography mass spectrometry combined with principal component analysis. Jurnal Teknologi, 78(2), 71–177.
Fadzlillah, N. A., Rohman, A., Ismail, A., Mustafa, S., & Khatib, A. (2013). Application of FTIR-ATR spectroscopy coupled with multivariate analysis for rapid estimation of butter adulteration. Journal of Oleo Science, 62, 555–562. https://doi.org/10.5650/jos.62.555
Fontecha, J., Mayo, I., Toledano, G., & Juárez, M. (2006). Triacylglycerol composition of protected designation of origin cheeses during ripening. Authenticity of milk fat. Journal of Dairy Science, 89, 882–887.
Fox, P. F., Uniacke-Lowe, T., Mcsweeney, P. L., H. & O’Mahony, J. A. (2015). Dairy chemistry and biochemistry (2nd ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
FSSAI Rules. (2011). Akalank’s food safety and standards act, rules and regulation. New Delhi, India: Akalank Publication.
Gandhi, K. (2014). Detection of palm olein and sheep body fat adulteration in ghee using solvent fractionation technique. Karnal, India: NDRI.
Gandhi, K., Kumar, A., & Lal, D. (2015). Iodine value integrated with solvent fractionation technique as a tool for detecting palm olein and sheep body fat adulteration in ghee (clarified milk fat). Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 68, 347–351.
Gandhi, K., Kumar, A., & Lal, D. (2018). Solvent fractionation technique paired with apparent solidification time (AST) test as a method to detect palm olein and sheep body fat in ghee (clarified milk fat). Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 71, 246–251.
Gandhi, K., & Lal, D. (2017). Butyro-refractometer (BR) reading linked with solvent fractionation technique as an aid to detect adulteration of palm olein and sheep body fat in ghee. Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources, 8, 276–281.
Gandhi, K., Upadhyay, N., Aghav, D., Sharma, V., & Lal, D. (2014). Detection of adulteration of ghee (clarified milk fat) with palmolein and sheep body fat using Reichert-Meissl (RM) value coupled with solvent fractionation technique. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 67, 387–393.
González-Larena, M., García-Llatas, G., Vidal, M. C., Sánchez-Siles, L. M., Barberá, R., & Lagarda, M. J. (2011). Stability of plant sterols in ingredients used in functional foods. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59(8), 3624–3631.
Hazra, T., Sharma, V., Sharma, R., & Arora, S. (2017). A species specific simplex polymerase chain reaction-based approach for detection of goat tallow in heat clarified milk fat (ghee). International Journal of Food Properties, 20, S69–S75. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2017.1289542
Hrbek, V., Vaclavik, L., Elich, O., & Hajslova, J. (2014). Authentication of milk and milk-based foods by direct analysis in real time ionization–high resolution mass spectrometry (DART–HRMS) technique: A critical assessment. Food Control, 36(1), 138–145.
IDF. (2006a). Anhydrous milk fat – Determination of sterol composition by gas liquid chromatography (Routine method). IDF 200: 2006. Brussels, Belgium: International Dairy Federation.
IDF. (2006b). Anhydrous milk fat – Determination of sterol composition by gas liquid chromatography (Reference method). IDF 159: 2006. Brussels, Belgium: International Dairy Federation.
IDF. (2010). Milk and milk products – Determination of milk fat purity by gas chromatographic analysis of triglycerides (Reference method). IDF 202:2010. Brussels, Belgium: International Dairy Federation.
IDF. (2018). IDF Press Release. OECD expects dairy fat consumption to increase. July 3, 2018. Brussels, Belgium.
ISO. (1976). Milk fat - Detection of vegetable fat by the phytosteryl acetate test. ISO 3595: 1976. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization.
Jha, J. S. (1981). Spectrophotometric studies of cheuri (Madhucabutyracea) fat and ghee mixtures: I. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 58, 843–845. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02672954
Kamm, W., Dionisi, F., Fay, L. B., Hischenhuber, C., Schmarr, H. G., & Engel, K. H. (2001). Analysis of steryl esters in cocoa butter by on-line liquid chromatography–gas chromatography. Journal of Chromatography. A, 918(2), 341–349.
Kapur, O. P., Srinivasan, M., & Subrahmanyan, V. (1960). Colouring of vanaspati with curcumin from turmeric. Current Science, 29, 350–351.
Karacaglar, N. N. Y., Bulat, T., Boyaci, I. H., & Topcu, A. (2018). Raman spectroscopy coupled with chemometric methods for the discrimination of foreign fats and oils in cream and yogurt. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 27(1), 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2018.06.008
Kim, J., Kim, D. N., Lee, S. H., Yoo, S. H., & Lee, S. (2010). Correlation of fatty acid composition of vegetable oils with rheological behaviour and oil uptake. Food Chemistry, 118, 398–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.05.011
Kim, J. M., Kim, H. J., & Park, J. M. (2015). Determination of milk fat adulteration with vegetable oils and animal fats by gas chromatographic analysis. Journal of Food Science, 80, 1945–1951. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.12979
Kirk, R. S., & Sawyer, R. (1991). Pearson’s composition and analysis of foods. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley Longman Ltd.
Konevets, V. I., Roganoua, Z. A., & Smolyanski, A. L. (1987). Use of infra-red spectroscopy for analysing fats of different origin. Izv Vyrshikh O Chebnykh Zavad Pischevaya Tekhnologiya, 1, 64–67.
Kumar, A. (2008). Detection of adulterants in ghee. PhD Thesis. Submitted to National Dairy Research Institute (Deemed University), Karnal, India.
Kumar, A., Kumar, A., Lal, D., Seth, R., & Sharma, V. (2010). Validation of ultra-violet and visible spectroscopic methods for detection of milk fat adulteration. Journal of Dairy and Food, 29(1), 8–14.
Kumar, A., Lal, D., Seth, R., & Sharma, R. (2005). Approaches for detection of adulteration in milk fat-an overview. Indian Dairyman, 57, 31.
Kumar, A., Lal, D., Seth, R., & Sharma, V. (2010). Detection of milk fat adulteration with admixture of foreign oils and fats using a fractionation technique and the apparent solidification time test. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 63, 457–462. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0307.2010.00562.x
Kumar, A., Upadhyay, N., Gandhi, K., Naik, S. N., & Sharma, V. (2017). Detection of adulteration in anhydrous milk fat using season variation in Butyro-refractometer reading studied by employing dry fractionation technique. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 70, 563–570.
Kumar, A., Upadhyay, N., Padghan, P. V., Gandhi, K., Lal, D., & Sharma, V. (2015). Detection of vegetable oil and animal depot fat adulteration in anhydrous milk fat (ghee) using fatty acid composition. MOJ Food Processing & Technology, 1, 13–19. https://doi.org/10.15406/mojfpt.2015.01.00013
Kumar, S., Kahlon, T., & Chaudhary, S. (2011). A rapid screening for adulterants in olive oil using DNA barcodes. Food Chemistry, 127, 1335–1341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.01.094
Lambelet, P., & Ganguli, N. C. (1983). Detection of pig and buffalo body fat in cow and buffalo ghees by differential scanning calorimetry. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 60, 1005–1008. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02660216
Liao, J., Liu, Y. F., Ku, T., Liu, M. H., & Huang, Y. (2017). Qualitative and quantitative identification of adulteration of milk powder using DNA extracted with a novel method. Journal of Dairy Science, 100, 1657–1663. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2016-11900
Lipp, M. (1996). Determination of the adulteration of butter fat by its triglyceride composition obtained by GC. A comparison of the suitability of PLS and neural networks. Food Chemistry, 55(4), 389–395.
Månsson, L. (2008). Fatty acids in bovine milk fat. Food & Nutrition Research, 52, 1821.
Molkentin, J. (2007). Detection of foreign fat in milk fat from different continents by triacylglycerol analysis. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 109, 505–510.
Ntakatsane, M. P., Liu, X. M., & Zhou, P. (2013). Short communication: Rapid detection of milk fat adulteration with vegetable oil by fluorescence spectroscopy. Journal of Dairy Science, 96, 2130–2136. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2012-6417
Nurrulhidayah, A. F., Arieff, S. R., Rohman, A., Amin, I., Shuhaimi, M., & Khatib, A. (2015). Detection of butter adulteration with lard using differential scanning calorimetry. International Food Research Journal, 22, 832–839. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-011-1913-y
OECD/FAO. (2018). OECD-FAO agricultural outlook 2018-2027. Rome, Italy: OECD Publishing, Paris/Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Panda, D., & Bindal, M. P. (1998). Detection of adulteration in ghee with animal body fat and vegetable oils using crystallization test. Indian Dairyman, 50, 13–20.
Park, J. M., Kim, N. K., Yang, C. Y., Moon, K. W., & Kim, J. M. (2014). Determination of the authenticity of dairy products on the basis of fatty acids and triacylglycerols content using GC analysis. Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources, 34, 316–324. https://doi.org/10.5851/kosfa.2014.34.3.316
Parodi, P. W. (1969). Detection of a synthetic milkfat. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 24, 56.
Parodi, P. W. (1971). Detection of synthetic and adulterated butterfat 3. Triglyceride fatty acid analysis. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 26, 155.
Poonia, A., Jha, A., Sharma, R., Singh, H. B., Rai, A.K., Sharma, N. (2017). Detection of adulteration in milk: A review. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 70, 23–42.
Povolo, M., Pelizzola, V., & Contarini, G. (2008). Directly resistively heated-column gas chromatography for the evaluation of cow milk fat purity. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 110, 1050–1057. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.200800010
Precht, D. (1992). Detection of foreign fat in milk fat II. Quantitative evaluation of foreign fat mixtures. Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und -Forschung, 194, 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01190178
Rangappa, K. S., & Achaya, K. T. (1974). Indian dairy products. Mumbai, India: Asia Publishing House.
Rani, A., Sharma, V., Arora, S., Lal, D., & Kumar, A. (2015). A rapid reversed-phase thin layer chromatographic protocol for detection of adulteration in ghee (clarified milk fat) with vegetable oils. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52, 2434–2439.
Rani, A., Sharma, V., Arora, S., Ghai, D. L. (2016). Comparison of rapid reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) method with rapid reversed phase thin layer chromatography method for detecting vegetable oils in ghee (clarified milk fat). International Journal of Food Properties, 19(5), 1154–1162.
Rebechi, S. R., Vélez, M. A., Vaira, S., & Perotti, M. C. (2016). Adulteration of Argentinean milk fats with animal fats: Detection by fatty acids analysis and multivariate regression techniques. Food Chemistry, 192, 1025–1032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.07.107
Sato, T., Kawano, S., & Iwamoto, M. (1990). Detection of foreign fat adulteration of milk fat by near infrared spectroscopic method. Journal of Dairy Science, 73, 3408–3413. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(90)79037-6
Sharma, R., & Singhal, O. P. (1995). Physico-chemical constants of ghee prepared from milk adulterated with foreign fat. Indian Journal of Dairy and Biosciences, 6, 51–53.
Sharma, R., & Singhal, O. P. (1996). Fatty acid composition, Bomer value and opacity profile of ghee prepared from milk adulterated with foreign fats. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 49, 62–67.
Sharma, V., Hazra, T., Kandhol, R., Sharma, R., & Arora, S. (2018). Confirmation of buffalo tallow in anhydrous cow milk fat using gas liquid chromatography in tandem with species-specific polymerase chain reaction. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 71, 158–163. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0307.12390
Sharma, V., Lal, D., & Sharma, R. (2007). Color based platform test for the detection of vegetable oils/fats in ghee. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 60, 16–18.
Singhal, O. P. (1973). Studies on ghee clarified butterfat and animal body fats with a view to detect adulteration. Karnal, India: NDRI.
Singhal, O. P. (1980). Adulterants and methods for detection. Indian Dairyman, 32, 771–774.
Singhal, O. P. (1987). Detection of adulteration in butterfat. NDRI annual report (pp. 64–65). Karnal, India: National Dairy Research Institute.
Timms, R. E. (1980). The phase behaviour and polymorphism of milk fat, milk fat fractions and fully hardened milk fat. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 35, 47–53.
Timms, R. E. (2005). Fractional crystallisation - the fat modification process for the 21st century. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 107, 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.200401075
Tomaszewska-Gras, J. (2016). Rapid quantitative determination of butter adulteration with palm oil using the DSC technique. Food Control, 60, 629–635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.09.001
Upadhyay, N., Goyal, A., Kumar, A., & Lal, D. (2017). Detection of adulteration by caprine body fat and mixtures of caprine body fat and groundnut oil in bovine and buffalo ghee using differential scanning calorimetry. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 70, 297–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0307.12336
Upadhyay, N., Jaiswal, P., & Jha, S. N. (2016). Detection of goat body fat adulteration in pure ghee using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy coupled with chemometric strategy. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 53, 3752–3760. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-016-2353-2
Upadhyay, N., Jaiswal, P., & Jha, S. N. (2018). Application of attenuated total reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (ATR–FTIR) in MIR range coupled with chemometrics for detection of pig body fat in pure ghee (heat clarified milk fat). Journal of Molecular Structure, 1153, 275–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2017.09.116
Upadhyay, N., Kumar, A., Goyal, A., & Lal, D. (2017). Complete liquification time test coupled with solvent fractionation technique to detect adulteration of foreign fats in ghee. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 70, 110–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0307.12323
Upadhyay, N., Kumar, A., Rathod, G., Goyal, A., & Lal, D. (2015). Development of a method employing reversed-phase thin-layer chromatography for establishing milk fat purity with respect to adulteration with vegetable oils. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 68, 207–217. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0307.12178
Viriato, R. L. S., de Souza Queirós, M., da Gama, M. A. S., Ribeiro, A. P. B., & Gigante, M. L. (2018). Milk fat as a structuring agent of plastic lipid bases. Food Research International, 111, 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.14728
Wasnik, P. G., Menon, R. R., Surendra Nath, B., Balasubramanyam, B. V., Manjunatha, M., & Sivaram, M. (2017). Application of pixel intensity, fractal dimension and skeleton parameters for detection of adulteration of cow ghee with vanaspati derived from image analysis. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 70, 331–337.
Wasnik, P. G., Menon, R. R., Surendra Nath, B., Balasubramanyam, B. V., Manjunatha, M., & Sivaram, M. (2017). Application of particle analysis and colour parameters for detection of adulteration of cow ghee with vanaspati derived from image analysis. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 70, 1–9.
Wood, J. D., Enser, M., Fisher, A. V., Nute, G. R., Sheard, P. R., Richardson, R. I., Hughes, S. I., Whittington, F. M. (2008). Fat deposition, fatty acid composition and meat quality: A review. Meat science, 78(4), 343–358.
Zachariah, S. P., Parmar, S. C., Bhavadasan, M. K., & Nath, B. S. (2010). Detection of adulteration of ghee with coconut oil or palm oil. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 63, 278–282.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Sharma, R., Gandhi, K., Battula, S.N., Mann, B. (2020). Detection of Milk Fat Adulteration. In: Truong, T., Lopez, C., Bhandari, B., Prakash, S. (eds) Dairy Fat Products and Functionality. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41661-4_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41661-4_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-41660-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-41661-4
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)