Abstract
Based on a stocktake, we present options to improve international soil governance in the short, medium and long term. The stocktake includes existing international instruments and institutions that are relevant for soil protection and its governance at the international level. It assesses the actual and potential steering effect of, inter alia, the Desertification Convention, the Biodiversity Convention, the Paris Agreement and climate regime, regional treaties, FAO, UNEP, IPBES and IPCC. At present, the Sustainable Development Goals and in particular the “land degradation neutrality” target have established a global political reference point. But there are almost no binding obligations for all states specifically regarding soil. Current governance of soil at the international level is piecemeal and spread over parts of different mandates. There is significant overlap of mandates and activities of relevant institutions, each of which has limitations. While a certain degree of a rudimentary division of labour is emerging, there is scope and a need for improvement. We present options for improving international soil governance with regard to overarching issues, a new treaty or institutions, improving existing governance, means of implementation and enhancing co-ordination and coherence.
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Notes
- 1.
This chapter is based on the results of research funded by German Environment Agency—“Improving international soil governance - Analysis and recommendations”—, which developed options for the German government (FKZ 3716 71 210 0).
- 2.
We use the term “instrument” in a broad sense that includes binding treaties as well as non-binding documents, declarations etc.
- 3.
For ease of reference, references to “states” in this study also include the EU unless otherwise stated.
- 4.
Stavi and Lal (2015).
- 5.
Cf. the definition in Art. 1(e) CCD.
- 6.
The detailed research and arguments are set out in the research report for the German Environment Agency in footnote 1, which will be available as Bodle et al. (2020) at https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/publications.
- 7.
UNGA Res. A/RES/70/1 “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” of 25.09.2015.
- 8.
UNGA Res. A/RES/66/288 “The future we want” of 11.09.2012, para 206. See also below on the CCD.
- 9.
- 10.
Orr et al. (2017), p. 59 et seq.
- 11.
See https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg15 (last accessed 15.05.2019).
- 12.
For format and organisational aspects see General Assembly Resolution 67/290. For guidance on the follow-up and review see General Assembly resolution 70/299.
- 13.
These include, notably, SDG 15.1 (“By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial … ecosystems and their services (…)”,SDG 15.5 (“Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity (…)”, also SDG 2.4 (“By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that … progressively improve land and soil quality”), SDG 3.9 (“By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from … soil pollution and contamination”) and SDG 12.4 (“By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes t… and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil …)”.
- 14.
See https://treaties.un.org. After withdrawing with effect of 28.03.2014, Canada re-joined the CCD with effect of 21.03.2017.
- 15.
Cf. Boer et al. (2017), p. 53 and the CCD’s website http://www2.unccd.int/convention/about-convention.
- 16.
I.e. parties whose lands include, in whole or in part, areas affected or threatened by desertification, Art. 1 (i) CCD. “Affected countries” means countries whose lands include, in whole or in part, affected areas.
- 17.
Cf. Art. 4(2) (a), (c) and Art. 5(a)-(e) CCD. For a brief analysis of the Convention’s shortcomings see Montanarella and Alva (2015), p. 44.
- 18.
- 19.
CCD decision 2/COP.12, preamble.
- 20.
We use the term “drylands” as a shorthand for what the CCD refers to as arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas.
- 21.
IISD (2015).
- 22.
This was the reason for some countries to oppose setting LDN targets for the CCD as a whole, IISD (2017), p. 17.
- 23.
IISD (2015), p. 10.
- 24.
While preamble notes that a significant proportion of land degradation occurs beyond drylands, the operative paragraphs recognise that parties (without limitation to “affected” parties) may use the CCD in pursuing their policies towards LDN, CCD COP decision 8/COP.12, preamble and operative paras 1 and 2.
- 25.
See for instance CCD decision 1/COP.13, Annex, strategic objective 1.
- 26.
Orr et al. (2017). See also Cowie et al. (2018), p. 25. See generally, https://knowledge.unccd.int/knowledge-products-and-pillars/guide-scientific-conceptual-framework-ldn/about-scientific (last accessed 15.05.2019).
- 27.
CCD decision 18/COP.13 paras 1–2.
- 28.
See http://www2.unccd.int/convention/about-convention (last accessed on 15.05.2019).
- 29.
CCD decision 23/COP.11, para. 3 and CCD decision 19/COP.12, para. 2.
- 30.
- 31.
https://www.im.natixis.com/en-institutional/news/news/first-investment-and-first-strategic-board-meeting-for-the-ldn-fund. However, apart from press releases, information such as founding documents, Board documents and operational policies do not seem to be publicly available. Some documents are available on the website of IDH, the manager of the LDN Fund’s Technical Assistance Facility.
- 32.
Ginzky (2015), p. 18. Cf. the frequent repetition in CCD COP12 decisions referring to the scope of the CCD COP decision 3/COP.12 paras 3, 4, 10.
- 33.
See https://www.unccd.int/actions/ldn-target-setting-programme (last accessed on 15.05.2019).
- 34.
CCD decision 3/COP.12, preamble.
- 35.
Almost universal membership with 196 parties, not including the USA.
- 36.
- 37.
See in detail at https://www.cbd.int/reports/search/ (last accessed on 15.05.2019) or the syntheses of the forth National Reports: UNEP/CBD/COP/10/INF/2 (2010), UNEP/CBD/COP/10/8 (2010), UNEP/CBD/WG-RI/3/INF/1 (2010); on the third National Reports: UNEP/CBD/WG-RI/2/INF/1 (2007) and UNEP/CBD/WG-RI/2/INF/1/Add.3 (2007).
- 38.
See www.ipbes.net and the Memorandum of Cooperation with Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), https://www.ipbes.net/memorandum-cooperation-convention-biological-diversity-cbd.
- 39.
La Vina and de Leon (2017), p. 166; see also Streck and Gay (2017), pp. 106–108; https://unfccc.int/topics/land-use/the-big-picture/introduction-to-land-use.
- 40.
For a general analysis of legal form and nature of the obligations see Bodle and Oberthuer (2017).
- 41.
- 42.
See also Boer et al. (2017), p. 59.
- 43.
“Koronivia joint work on agriculture”, Decision 4/CP.23.
- 44.
See the overview at https://unfccc.int/topics/land-use/the-big-picture/introduction-to-land-use.
- 45.
UN GA Resolution 43/53 of 6.12.1988; see generally www.ipcc.ch.
- 46.
See https://www.ipcc.ch/about/preparingreports/ (last accessed on 15.05.2019).
- 47.
Art. 13.7(a) Paris Agreement; decision 1/CP.21, para. 31.
- 48.
IPCC (2018), pp. 14, 19.
- 49.
- 50.
http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/resources/en/ (last accessed on 15.05.2019).
- 51.
FAO (2014).
- 52.
FAO (1983).
- 53.
The objectives include to: (1) Contribute to the eradication of hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition; (2) Increase and improve provision of goods and services from agriculture, forestry and fisheries in a sustainable manner; (3) Reduce rural poverty; (4) Enable more inclusive and efficient agricultural and food systems at local, national and international levels; (5) Increase the resilience of livelihoods to threats and crises. Cross-cutting themes are gender and governance. Cf. FAO (2013).
- 54.
FAO and ITPS (2015).
- 55.
https://www.unenvironment.org/about-un-environment (last accessed on 15.05.2019). The mandate was first established in 1972 in the UN General Assembly Resolution 2997 (XXVII) which established UNEP; other resolutions reinforced this mandate, including the Nairobi Declaration on the Role and Mandate of the United Nations Environment Programme of 7 February 1997 and the Malmö Ministerial Declaration of 31 May 2000.
- 56.
https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics (last accessed on 15.05.2019).
- 57.
Hannam and Boer (2002), p. 61.
- 58.
Ferrajolo (2011), p. 243 et seq.
- 59.
Resolution XII.2: The 4th Strategic Plan 2016–2024, Punta del Este, 2015; see for an overview of the resolutions adopted at COP12 Laina and Tsioumani (2015), p. 190 et seq.
- 60.
The Alpine countries Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Slovenia and Switzerland, as well as the European Union, See http://www.alpconv.org/en/convention/ratifications/default.html.
- 61.
- 62.
Article 1 (2) Soil Conservation Protocol.
- 63.
Brandon (2013), p. 49.
- 64.
- 65.
African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Algiers, 15 September 1968, in force 16 June 1969, 101 United Nations Treaty Series (1976), p. 3.
- 66.
The Maputo Convention, according to its article XXXVIII.1, requires 15 ratifications to enter into force. Even the African Union, as depositary, lists 17 ratifications, but does not list the Convention as being in force. https://au.int/treaties.
- 67.
IUCN (2006), p. 5.
- 68.
Beyerlin and Marauhn (2011), p. 208.
- 69.
The African Ministerial Conference on the Environment that took place in September 2018, called in its final declaration for the convening of the first COP as a next step for implementation, https://www.iucn.org/news/world-commission-environmental-law/201810/maputo-convention-protection-nature-gets-a-boost-african-ministerial-conference-environment.
- 70.
Oberthür et al. (2017).
- 71.
See the ENB’s comment that focusing on LDN was the CCD’s “saving grace” at COP 13 in 2017, IISD (2017), p. 17.
- 72.
- 73.
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Bodle, R., Stockhaus, H., Wolff, F., Oberthür, S. (2021). The Future of International Soil Governance. In: Ginzky, H., et al. International Yearbook of Soil Law and Policy 2019. International Yearbook of Soil Law and Policy, vol 2019. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52317-6_9
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