Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Family Transformations and Sub-replacement Fertility in Europe

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover The Palgrave Handbook of Family Sociology in Europe

  • 1194 Accesses

Abstract

Below-replacement fertility has become a world-wide phenomenon. The chapter reviews the persistent sub-replacement fertility that is now observed universally across Europe, its social and demographic contexts, and the main societal and research challenges related to it. We start by briefly describing the fertility trends across the continent in the last half century and discussing them in relation to new and diverging patterns of family-related behaviours and new ways of ‘doing family’ that have emerged in the recent five decades. Next, some interpretation of the reasons for the sub-replacement fertility in Europe is provided. We refer to the main theoretical concepts derived to explain contemporary and future fertility developments. We also discuss the role of family policies, framed within different welfare regimes in Europe, in shaping these fertility developments. The chapter closes with reflection on research challenges and data needs, both necessary for better understanding of on-going societal transformations and for designing efficient evidence-based policies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 219.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adserà, Alicia. 2011. “Where Are the Babies? Labor Market Conditions and Fertility in Europe.” European Journal of Population 27 (1): 1–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anxo, Dominique, Gerhard Bosch, and Jill Rubery. 2010. The Welfare State and Life Transitions: A European Perspective. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaujouan, Éva, and Laurent Toulemon. 2019. “The Delay in Procreation in Europe.” Médecine de la Reproduction 21 (3): 209–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, Gary S. 1981. A Treatise on the Family. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernhardt, Eva M. 1993. “Fertility and Employment.” European Sociological Review 9 (1): 25–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernhardt, Eva M. 2004. “Is the Second Demographic Transition a Useful Concept for Demography?” Vienna Yearbook of Population Research 2: 25–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Billari, Francesco C., and Aart C. Liefbroer. 2010. “Towards a New Pattern of Transition to Adulthood?” Advances in Life Course Research 15 (2–3): 59–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cahn, Naomi R., June Carbone, Laurie Fields DeRose, and William Bradford Wilcox, eds. 2018. Unequal Family Lives: Causes and Consequences in Europe and the Americas. Cambridge, UK and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Council of the EU. 2019. “Better Work-Life Balance for Parents and Carers in the EU: Council Adopts New Rules,” Press Release. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/06/13/better-work-life-balance-for-parents-and-carers-in-the-eu-council-adopts-new-rules/.

  • Daly, Mary. 2005. “Changing Family Life in Europe: Significance for State and Society.” European Societies 7 (3): 379–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Del Boca, Daniela, and Cecile Wetzels, eds. 2007. Social Polices, Labour Market and Motherhood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Di Giulio, Paola, Roberto Impicciatore, and Maria Sironi. 2019. “The Changing Pattern of Cohabitation: A Sequence Analysis Approach.” Demographic Research 40 (42): 1211–1248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dykstra, Pearl A. 2010. Intergenerational Family Relationships in Ageing Societies. Geneva: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Escobedo, Anna, and Karin Wall. 2015. “Leave Policies in Southern Europe: Continuities and Changes.” Community, Work & Family 18 (2): 218–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Esping-Andersen, Gøsta. 2009. The Incomplete Revolution: Adapting Welfare States to Women’s New Roles. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Esping-Andersen, Gøsta, and Francesco C. Billari. 2015. “Re-theorizing Family Demographics.” Population and Development Review 41 (1): 1–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. 2006. The Demographic Future of Europe—From Challenge to Opportunity. Communication from the Commission. Brussels.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. 2009. Dealing with the Impact of an Ageing Population in the EU. European Comission (Brussels).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferragina, Emanuele. 2019. “Does Family Policy Influence Women’s Employment?: Reviewing the Evidence in the Field.” Political Studies Review 17 (1): 65–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frejka, Tomas. 2011. “The Role of Contemporary Childbearing Postponement and Recuperation in Shaping Period Fertility Trends.” Comparative Population Studies 36 (4): 927–958.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frejka, Tomas, and Stuart Gietel-Basten. 2016. “Fertility and Family Policies in Central and Eastern Europe After 1990.” Comparative Population Studies 41 (1).

    Google Scholar 

  • Frejka, Tomas, and Tomáš Sobotka. 2008. “Overview Chapter 1: Fertility in Europe: Diverse, Delayed and Below Replacement.” Demographic Research S7 (3): 15–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gauthier, Anne H. 2015. “Social Norms, Institutions, and Policies in Low-Fertility Countries.” In Low Fertility and Reproductive Health in East Asia, edited by Naohiro Ogawa and Iqbal H. Shah. Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gauthier, Anne H., Susana Laia Farinha Cabaço, and Tom Emery. 2018. “Generations and Gender Survey Study Profile.” Longitudinal and Life Course Studies 9 (4): 456–465.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gauthier, Anne H., and Judit C. Koops. 2018. “The History of Family Policy Research.” In Handbook of Family Policy, edited by Guðný Björk Eydal and Tine Rostgaard, 11–23. Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldin, Claudia. 1990. Understanding the Gender Gap. An Economic History of American Women. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldscheider, Frances, Eva Bernhardt, and Trude Lappegård. 2015. “The Gender Revolution: A Framework for Understanding Changing Family and Demographic Behavior.” Population and Development Review 41 (2): 207–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gornick, Janet C., Marcia K. Meyers, and Katherin E. Ross. 1997. “Supporting the Employment of Mothers: Policy Variation Across Fourteen Welfare States.” Journal of European Social Policy 7 (1): 45–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagestad, Gunhild O., and Pearl A. Dykstra. 2016. “Structuration of the Life Course: Some Neglected Aspects.” In Handbook of the Life Course, edited by Jeylan T. Mortimer, Michael J. Shanahan and M. Johnson, 131–157. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hajnal, John. 1965. “European Marriage Patterns in Perspective.” In Population in History. Essays in Historical Demography, edited by D.V. Glass and D.E.C. Eversley, 101–143. New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hantrais, Linda. 2006. “Living as a Family in Europe.” In Policy Implications of Changing Family Formation, edited by Linda Hantrais, Dimiter Philipov and Francesco C. Billari, 117–181. Council of Europe Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohler, Hans Peter, Francesco C. Billari, and José Antonio Ortega. 2006. “Low Fertility in Europe: Causes, Implications and Policy Options.” In The Baby Bust: Who Will Do the Work? Who Will Pay the Taxes?, edited by F. R. Harris, 48–109. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leira, Arnlaug. 2002. Working Parents and the Welfare State. Family Change and Policy Reform in Scandinavia. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesthaeghe, Ron. 1995. “The Second Demographic Transition in Western Countries: An Interpretation.” In Gender and family change in industrialized countries, edited by K.O. Mason and A.M. Jensen, 17–62. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesthaeghe, Ron. 2010. “The Unfolding Story of the Second Demographic Transition.” Population and Development Review 36 (2): 211–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesthaeghe, Ron. 2020. “The Second Demographic Transition, 1986–2020: Sub-replacement Fertility and Rising Cohabitation—A Global Update.” Genus 76 (1): 10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, Jane. 1992. “Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes.” Journal of European Social Policy 2 (3): 159–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, Jane. 2009. Work-family Balance, Gender and Policy. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luci-Greulich, A. and Olivier Thevenon. 2013. “The Impact of Family Policy Packages on Fertility Trends in Developed Countries.” European Journal of Population 29 (4): 387–416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, Karen O. 1997. |”Gender and Demographic Change: What Do We know?” In The Continuing Demographic Transition, edited by G. W. Jones, R. M. Douglas, J. C. Caldwell, and R. M. D’Souza. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matysiak, Anna. 2011. Interdependencies Between Fertility and Women’s Labour Supply. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matysiak, Anna, and Dorota Węziak-Białowolska. 2016. “Country-Specific Conditions for Work and Family Reconciliation: An Attempt at Quantification.” European Journal of Population 32 (4): 475–510.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, Peter. 2000. “Gender Equity, Social Institutions and the Future of Fertility.” Journal of Population Research 17 (1): 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mínguez, Almudena Moreno, and Isabella Crespi. 2017. “Gender Equality and Family Changes in the Work–Family Culture in Southern Europe.” International Review of Sociology 27 (3): 394–420.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neyer, Gerda. 2013. “Welfare States, Family Policies, and Fertility in Europe.” In The Demography of Europe, edited by Gerda Neyer, Gunnar Andersson, Hill Kulu, Laura Bernardi and Christoph Bühler, 29–53. Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheimer, Valerie Kincade. 1997. “Women’s Employment and the Gain to Marriage: The Specialization and Trading Model.” Annual Review of Sociology 23: 431–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parke, Ross D. 2013. Future Families: Diverse Forms, Rich Possibilities. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, Talcott. 1955. “The American Family: Its Relations to Personality and the Social Structure.” In Family Socialization and Interaction Process, edited by Talcott Parsons and Robert F. Bales. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perelli-Harris, Brienna, and Mark Lyons-Amos. 2015. “Changes in Partnership Patterns Across the Life Course: An Examination of 14 Countries in Europe and the United States.” Demographic Research 33 (6): 145–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perelli-Harris, Brienna, Wendy Sigle-Rushton, Michaela Kreyenfeld, Trude Lappegård, Renske Keizer, and Caroline Berghammer. 2010. “The Educational Gradient of Childbearing within Cohabitation in Europe.” Population and Development Review 36 (4): 775–801.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prskawetz, Alexia, Marija Mamolo, and Henriette Engelhardt. 2010. “On the Relation Between Fertility, Natality, and Nuptiality.” European Sociological Review 26 (6): 675–689.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rechel, Bernd, Emily Grundy, Jean-Marie Robine, Jonathan Cylus, Johan P. Mackenbach, Cecile Knai, and Martin McKee. 2013. “Ageing in the European Union.” The Lancet 381 (9874): 1312–1322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riva, Egidio. 2016. “Familialism Reoriented: Continuity and Change in Work–Family Policy in Italy.” Community, Work & Family 19 (1): 21–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saraceno, Chiara. 2008. “Patterns of Family Living in the Enlarged EU.” In Handbook of Quality of Life in the Enlarged Union, edited by Jens Alber, Tony Fahey, and Chiara Saraceno, 47–72. London and New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwanitz, Katrin. 2017. “The Transition to Adulthood and Pathways Out of the Parental Home: A Cross-National Analysis.” Advances in Life Course Research 32: 21–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobotka, Tomáš. 2017. “Childlessness in Europe: Reconstructing Long-Term Trends Among Women Born in 1900–1972.” In Childlessness in Europe: Contexts, Causes, and Consequences, edited by Michaela Kreyenfeld and Dirk Konietzka, 17–53. Cham: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobotka, Tomáš, Anna Matysiak, and Zuzanna Brzozowska. 2019. “Policy Responses to Low Fertility: How Effective Are They?” UNFPA Technical Division Working Paper Series Working Paper 1, May 2019.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobotka, Tomáš, and Laurent Toulemon. 2008. “Changing Family and Partnership Behaviour: Common Trends and Persistent Diversity Across Europe.” Demographic Research 19 (6): 85–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thevenon, Olivier, and Anne H. Gauthier. 2011. “Family Policies in Developed Countries: A ‘Fertility-Booster’ with Side-Effects.” Community, Work & Family 14 (2): 197–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. 2018. World Population Policies 2015. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. 2019. World Population Prospects, Highlights. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wall, Karin and Anna Escobedo. 2009. “Portugal and Spain: Two Pathways in Southern Europe.” In The Politics of Parental Leave Policies, edited by Sheila Kamerman and Peter Moss. The Policy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • van de Kaa, Dirk J. 1987. “Europe’s Second Demographic Transition.” Population Bulletin 42 (1): 1–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • van de Kaa, Dirk J. 1994. “The Second Demographic Transition Revisited: Theories and Expectations.” In Population and Family in the Low Countries 1993: Late Fertility and Other Current Issues, edited by G. Beets et al., 81–126. Pennsylvania/Amsterdam: Swets and Zeitlinger, Berwyn.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeman, Krystof, Éva Beaujouan, Zuzanna Brzozowska, and Tomáš Sobotka. 2018. “Cohort Fertility Decline in Low Fertility Countries: Decomposition Using Parity Progression Ratios.” Demographic Research 38 (25): 651–690.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Statistics and Demography, Warsaw School of Economics, Warsaw, Poland

    Irena E. Kotowska

  2. Institute of Psychology, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland

    Monika Mynarska

  3. Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute (NIDI-KNAW), University of Groningen, Den Haag, The Netherlands

    Anne H. Gauthier

Authors
  1. Irena E. Kotowska
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Monika Mynarska
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Anne H. Gauthier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Irena E. Kotowska .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Social Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland

    Anna-Maija Castrén

  2. Faculty of Human and Social Studies, Mykolas Romeris University, Vilnius, Lithuania

    Vida Česnuitytė

  3. Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism, University of Macerata, Macerata, Italy

    Isabella Crespi

  4. University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

    Jacques-Antoine Gauthier

  5. Institute of Social Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

    Rita Gouveia

  6. EHESP, CNRS (National Centre of Scientific Research), Rennes, France

    Claude Martin

  7. Campus María Zambrano, University of Valladolid, Segovia, Spain

    Almudena Moreno Mínguez

  8. Institute of Sociology, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland

    Katarzyna Suwada

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Kotowska, I.E., Mynarska, M., Gauthier, A.H. (2021). Family Transformations and Sub-replacement Fertility in Europe. In: Castrén, AM., et al. The Palgrave Handbook of Family Sociology in Europe. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73306-3_8

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73306-3_8

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-73305-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-73306-3

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation