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Francisco de Vitoria on the “Just War”: Brief Notes and Remarks

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At the Origins of Modernity

Part of the book series: Studies in the History of Law and Justice ((SHLJ,volume 10))

Abstract

This contribution presents some notes on the theory of the law of war according to Francisco de Vitoria, an author who continues to generate interest and who is still the subject of various studies and several interpretations. The classical doctrine on the subject of war law addresses two fundamental questions: when is it permitted to make war? (jus ad bellum); what is permitted during war? (jus in bello). After some contextual notes, this chapter focuses on the development of Vitoria’s perspective on these two questions, especially in his relectiones De Indis and De iure belli, considering above all his thought and his interpretation of the “injuria” according to the older law of war, and not taking directly into account the important and complementary issue of the “theology of conscience” of our Master. Vitoria’s just war doctrine deals in fact with the relationship between “medieval” and “modern” and shows how this Spanish theologian is still current even in respect of new issues we face today.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For further information, see Hamilton 1963; Brufau Prats 1989; Justenhoven 1991; Cruz Prados 1991; Hernández 1995a, b; Frayle Delgado 2007; Belda Plans 2000 (about Francisco de Vitoria: 313–398, 941–953); Janssen 2001; de Vitoria 2003, 2010, 213–229; Jericó Bermejo 2005; Tierney 2005; Maldonado Simán 2006; Muldoon 2006; Langella 2007, 2013; Aparisi Miralles 2007; Pena González 2009 (about Francisco de Vitoria, 25–53); Aspe Armella and Zorroza 2014. I would like to thank for their assistance Prof. David Johnson and Dr. Giulia Massazza Gal for this English text and for the discussion of some of the themes dealt with here. We have directly translated all the texts that are not currently available in English.

  2. 2.

    See Regout 1934 (about Francisco de Vitoria, 152–185).

  3. 3.

    Regout 1934, 15.

  4. 4.

    For further information, see Walzer 1976; Russell 1977; Dockrill and Paskins 1979; Johnson 1984; Miller 1991; Cahill 1994; Orend 2000, 2006; Mekonnen 2002; Robinson 2003; Zupan 2004; O’Donovan 2006; Simpson 2007; Brown 2008; Castaño 2010; Allman and Winright 2010.

  5. 5.

    Regout 1934, 19.

  6. 6.

    Regout 1934, 21, note 1. See also Del Vecchio 1964.

  7. 7.

    Regout 1934, 20.

  8. 8.

    Regout 1934, 21.

  9. 9.

    Regout 1934, 23.

  10. 10.

    Regout 1934, 25.

  11. 11.

    Regout 1934, 25–26.

  12. 12.

    See Vanderpol 1919.

  13. 13.

    See, for instance, Haggenmacher 1983, and Whitman 2012. In his book The Verdict of Battle. The Law of Victory and the Making of Modern War, Whitman criticized Vanderpol’s interpretation.

  14. 14.

    McMahan 2009, 33. McMahan—continuing to quoting Vitoria—discusses the question of the moral equality of combatants, with an interesting distinction between permissibility and justification, as well as between subjective and objective versions of both. See 61–62 and 111–116.

  15. 15.

    Regout 1934, 22.

  16. 16.

    Faraco 2013, 31.

  17. 17.

    Hanke 1977, XV.

  18. 18.

    Regout 1934, 150.

  19. 19.

    See Schmitt 2006.

  20. 20.

    See Villey 2013.

  21. 21.

    See Ferrajoli 1994, 439–478.

  22. 22.

    Galli 2005, VI.

  23. 23.

    Tosi 2006, 2.

  24. 24.

    See, for instance, Ruede 1970; Wicker 1993; Dolan 1997; Smit 2005; Reed and Ryall 2007; Saada 2009; Manga 2010 [E. Manga proposes a kind of “critical analogy” between the concept of “just war” according to Vitoria and what it is possible to find about this topic in George Bush’s writings and discourses]; Allhoff et al. 2013; Winright 2015.

  25. 25.

    Fisher 2012, 158.

  26. 26.

    Hernández 1991, 1031.

  27. 27.

    Hernández 1991, 1032.

  28. 28.

    Tosi 2006, 2.

  29. 29.

    Hernández 1991, 1040.

  30. 30.

    Tosi 2006, 2.

  31. 31.

    de Gandía 1952, 14–15.

  32. 32.

    See Zavala 1991, 27.

  33. 33.

    Luppi 1988, 476.

  34. 34.

    See de Vitoria 1981, 2007, 2009a; Pereña Vicente and Conde López 2002. Edition in English of the two relectiones: de Vitoria 1991a, b.

  35. 35.

    See de Vitoria 2008, 2009b; Castañeda 2007.

  36. 36.

    See de Vitoria 1932, t. II, 279–293.

  37. 37.

    Tosi 2006, 2.

  38. 38.

    Tosi 2006, 3.

  39. 39.

    See Haggenmacher, 1983.

  40. 40.

    Hernández 1991, 1040.

  41. 41.

    Hernández 1991, 1040–1046.

  42. 42.

    Tosi 2006, 3.

  43. 43.

    Galli 2005, XII–XIII.

  44. 44.

    See De Indis I, 2.

  45. 45.

    Hernández 1991, 1047.

  46. 46.

    “His presentation contains a rich international doctrine: free communication among peoples, the freedom of the seas, free commerce, trade, and contracting among civil societies, and even the freedom of information. Vitoria develops the content of each of these in the first four propositions of his first principle”. Hernández 1991, 1047.

  47. 47.

    Hernández 1991, 1048.

  48. 48.

    “Si quis ex barbaris conversi sunt ad Christum et principes eorum vi aut metu volunt eos revocare ad idolatriam, hispani hac ratione, si necesse fuerit, possunt, si alia via non possunt, movere bellum et cogere barbaros ut desistant ab illa iniuria et contra pertinaces iura belli prosequi, et per consequens aliquando etiam dominos deponere, sicut in aliis bellis iustis”. De Indis I, 3, 12.

  49. 49.

    “Si bona pars barbarorum conversa esset ad Christum, sive iure sive iniuria, id est, dato quod minis aut terroribus vel alias non servatis servandis, dummodo vere essent christiani, Papa ex rationabili causa posset, vel ipsis petentibus vel etiam non petentibus, dare illis principem christianum et auferre alios dominos infideles”. De Indis I, 3, 13.

  50. 50.

    “Alius titulus posset esse propter tyrannidem vel ipsorum dominorum apud barbaros vel etiam propter leges tyrannicas in iniuriam innocentium, puta quia sacrificant homines innocentes vel alias occident indemnatos ad vescendum carnibus eorum”. De Indis I, 3, 14.

  51. 51.

    “Alius titulus posset esse per veram et voluntariam electionem, puta si barbari ipsi intellegentes et prudentem administrationem et humanitatem hispanorum ultro vellent accipere in principem regem Hispaniae, tam domini quam alii. Hoc enim fieri posset et esset legitimus titulus etiam de iure naturali”. De Indis I, 3, 15.

  52. 52.

    “Alius titulus posset non quidem asseri, sed revocari in disputationem et videri aliquibus legitimus […], et est talis: Barbari enim isti, licet (ut supra dictum est) non omnino sint amentes, tamen parum distant ab amentibus, ita ut non sint idonei ad constituendam vel administrandam legitimam et ordinatam rempublicam etiam inter terminos humanos et civiles”. De Indis I, 3, 17.

  53. 53.

    Hernández 1991, 1048.

  54. 54.

    “All races are part of the human race, and each shares a natural right of friendship that demands a respect, love, and mutual assistance that civil authorities are obliged to support and further”. Hernández 1991, 1047.

  55. 55.

    Hernández 1991, 1047.

  56. 56.

    See De Indis I, 3, 5–7.

  57. 57.

    Galli 2005, XXII–XXIII.

  58. 58.

    Tosi 2006, 4.

  59. 59.

    The Spaniards usually invoked in their American conquests the so-called Requirimiento. According to this document, “the Indians had to accept the sovereignty of the Spanish monarchs, and if they did not, they would be compelled to submit by force. The conquerors would preach the Christian faith, but they left the decision to assent to the Indians. Vitoria denied that this document possessed any legitimacy, and he refuted each of the seven grounds on which it sought to justify the conquests”. Hernández 1991, 1046–1047.

  60. 60.

    Hernández 1991, 1040–1041. See Alonso Getino 1930, 150.

  61. 61.

    Pereña Vicente 1996, CXIX.

  62. 62.

    Hernández 1991, 1048. “Ex his omnibus possunt componi pauci canones et regulae belligerandi. Primus est: Supposito, quod principes habent auctoritatem gerendi bellum, primum omnium debent non quaerere occasiones et causas belli, sed, si fieri potest, cum omnibus cupiant pacem habere, ut Paulus praecepit Rom 12,18. […] Secundus canon: Conflato iam ex iustis causis bello oportet illud gerere non ad perniciem gentis, contra quam bellandum est, sed ad consecutionem iuris sui et defensionem patriae, ut ex illo bello pax aliquando et securitas consequatur. Tertius canon: Parta victoria et completo bello oportet moderate et modestia Christiana victoria uti. Et oportet victorem existimare se iudicem sedere inter duas res publicas: alteram, quae laesa est, alteram, quae iniuriam fecit, ut non tanquam accusator sententiam ferat, sed tanquam iudex satisfaciat quidem laesae, sed, quantum fieri poterit, sine calamitate rei publicae nocentis, et maxime, quia ut in plurimum, praecipue inter Christianos, tota culpa est penes principes. Nam subditi bona fide pro principibus pugnant”. De iure belli, Conclusiones.

  63. 63.

    Regout 1934, 168.

  64. 64.

    Tosi 2006, 5.

  65. 65.

    McMahan, 145–146. See Grotius 1625, De iure belli ac pacis (bk. II, ch. 26, § 4).

  66. 66.

    See Galli 2005, XXIII.

  67. 67.

    “Sed relictis extraneis opinionibus respondetur ad quaestionem per unicam conclusionem talem: Licet Christianis militare et bella gerere”. de Vitoria 2005, De iure belli, q. I, 2.

  68. 68.

    “Pro qua sit prima propositio: Bellum defensivum quilibet potest suscipere, etiam homo privatus. […] Secunda propositio: Quaelibet res publica habet auctoritatem indicendi et inferendi bellum. […] Tertia propositio: Eandem auctoritatem habent quantum ad hoc principes sicut res publica”. de Vitoria 2005, De iure belli, q. II, 1–3.

  69. 69.

    “Quarta propositio: Una sola causa iusti belli est, scilicet iniuria accepta”. de Vitoria 2005, De iure belli, q. III, 4.

  70. 70.

    “Secunda propositio: Non est iusta causa belli amplificatio imperii. […] Tertia propositio: Nec etiam est iusta causa belli gloria propria aut aliud commodum principis”. de Vitoria 2005, De iure belli, q. III, 2–3.

  71. 71.

    Tosi 2006, 8.

  72. 72.

    Galli 2005, XXIII–XXV.

  73. 73.

    Galli 2005, XXVII–XXIX.

  74. 74.

    See Haggenmacher 1983.

  75. 75.

    Regout 1934, 266.

  76. 76.

    Regout 1934, 185.

  77. 77.

    Tosi 2006, 11.

  78. 78.

    Galli 2005, LVI.

  79. 79.

    Galli 2005, XXIV.

  80. 80.

    Galli 2005, XXVI.

  81. 81.

    See Legaz Lacambra 1947, 195–211.

  82. 82.

    See Pereña Vicente 1996, CXIX.

  83. 83.

    Galli 2005, L-LI.

  84. 84.

    Zolo 1995, 98–99.

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    Mauro Mantovani

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    José María Beneyto

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Mantovani, M. (2017). Francisco de Vitoria on the “Just War”: Brief Notes and Remarks. In: Beneyto, J., Corti Varela, J. (eds) At the Origins of Modernity. Studies in the History of Law and Justice, vol 10. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62998-8_7

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