Abstract
Celebrated as the father of Indian independence, Mohandas K. Gandhi was also a transnational activist. This chapter explores the transnational dimensions of Gandhi’s career and influence. It argues that Gandhian nonviolence—what he called ‘satyagraha’—was a transnational production: it was developed as a political performance that might allow those on the colonial periphery to influence metropolitan targets; it drew upon British, European, American, and Indian influences; it reflected intercultural relationships that spanned the continents. Second, it contends that the global career of Gandhian satyagraha was enabled by the mass communications of the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries and by a repeated labour of translation, shared among a community of nonviolent advocates in India and the West. The history of Gandhian protest therefore demonstrates the longevity of global activism. It also highlights the centrality of transnational networks to the forging of successful global careers and campaigns.
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Notes
- 1.
For example, the early petitions drafted in support of Indians in South Africa were despatched to the Colonial Secretary in London . See Ramachandra Guha, Gandhi Before India, London: Allen Lane, 2013, p. 75. The Indian Home Rule movement was supported by a large network of Britons and of organisations such as the ‘Indian Conciliation Group.’ See Sean Scalmer , Gandhi in the West: The Mahatma and the Rise of Radical Protest, Cambridge and New York : Cambridge University Press, 2011, p. 95.
- 2.
On Gandhi and the metropolitan news: C. Seshachari, Gandhi and the American Scene: An Intellectual History and Inquiry, Bombay: Nachiketa Publications, 1969, p. 58. He was the Time magazine ‘Man of the Year’ in 1930. See Dennis Dalton, Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, p.108.
- 3.
Robert Bernays , Naked Fakir, London: Victor Gollancz, 1931, p. 85.
- 4.
‘Wise Mr. Gandhi,’ Daily Herald, 29 October 1931; Michael Pym, cited in J.S.H., ‘The Power of India ,’ The Friend, 10 April 1931.
- 5.
Mohandas K. Gandhi , The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi [henceforth CWMG], vol. 13, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1964, p. 262.
- 6.
Mohandas K. Gandhi , CWMG, vol. 28, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1968, p. 127.
- 7.
Mohandas K. Gandhi , CWMG, vol. 68, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1977, pp. 390–391.
- 8.
For Gandhi and African-American campaigning: Sudarshan Kapur, Raising up a Prophet: The African-American Encounter with Gandhi, Boston: Beacon Press, 1992; and Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: The Shared Struggle for Freedom in India and the United States, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012. On the peace movement , as well as African-American activism, see Scalmer , Gandhi in the West.
- 9.
See, for example, David Hardiman, Gandhi in His Time and Ours, New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2003; and Peter Ackerman and Jack DuVall, A Force More Powerful: A Century of Nonviolent Conflict, New York: Palgrave, 2000. On the rise of non-violent NGOs (many influenced by Gandhi): Selina Gallo-Cruz, ‘Organizing Global Nonviolence: The Growth and Spread of Nonviolent INGOS, 1948–2003,’ in Sharon Erickson Nepstad and Lester R. Kurtz, eds., Nonviolent Conflict and Civil Resistance (Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, vol. 34), Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2012, pp. 213–256.
- 10.
For example, the 2011 global protests: Pnina Werbner, Martin Webb, and Kathryn Spellman-Poots, ‘Introduction’, in Pnina Werbner, Martin Webb, and Kathryn Spellman-Poorts, eds., The Political Aesthetics of Global Protest: The Arab Spring and Beyond, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2014, p. 5.
- 11.
Charles Tilly and Sidney Tarrow have offered the most detailed studies of the historical emergence of the ‘social movement ’ as a political form. Tilly emphasises the state; Tarrow, capitalism and print. Tilly’s major historical studies are Charles Tilly, The Contentious French, Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press, 1986, and Charles Tilly, Popular Contention in Great Britain, 1758–1834, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995. A bibliography that includes his major theoretical and synthetic works is available at: http://essays.ssrc.org/tilly/resources#bibliography. For Tarrow: Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, second edition, Cambridge and New York : Cambridge University Press, 1998, esp. Part I. For the attempt to connect post-industrial society and the rise of the so-called new social movements, see, most importantly: Alain Touraine, The Post-Industrial Society: Tomorrow’s Social History, London: Wildwood House, 1974.
- 12.
A point made in Sean Chabot and Jan Willem Duyvendak, ‘Globalization and Transnational Diffusion Between Social Movements: Reconceptualizing the Dissemination of the Gandhian Repertoire and the “Coming Out” Routine’, Theory and Society, vol. 31, 2002, pp. 697–740.
- 13.
On the Internet: Manuel Castells, The Power of Identity, Malden and Oxford : Blackwell, 1997, p. 107; Richard Kahn and Douglas Kellner, ‘New Media and Internet Activism: From the ‘Battle of Seattle’ to Blogging,’ New Media and Society, vol. 6, no. 1, 2004, p. 88. For an emphasis on contemporary movements such as the Zaptista and the ‘Global Justice Movement:’ Sharon Erickson Nepstad and Clifford Bob, ‘When Do Leaders Matter? Hypotheses on Leadership Dynamics in Social Movements,’ Mobilization, vol. 11, no. 1, 2006, pp. 1–22; Sidney Tarrow and Doug McAdam , ‘Scale Shift in Transnational Contention,’ in Donatella della Porta and Sidney Tarrow, eds., Transnational Protest and Global Activism, Lanham and Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005, pp. 121–147; Jeffrey Scott Juris and Geoffrey Henri Pleyers, ‘Alter-activism: Emerging Cultures of Patriotism among Young Global Justice Activists,’ Journal of Youth Studies, vol. 12, no. 1, February 2009, p. 70.
- 14.
A widespread practice in ‘northern’ social theory. For a critique and attempts to develop an alternative: R.W. Connell, Southern Theory: The Global Dynamics of Knowledge in the Social Sciences, Cambridge: Polity, 2007.
- 15.
A.G. Hopkins notes the “significant contribution” of imperialism to global processes over the nineteenth century: see A.G. Hopkins, ‘The History of Globalization—and The Globalization of History?,’ in A.G. Hopkins, ed., Globalization in World History, New York: W.W. Norton, 2002, p. 34.
- 16.
The British government of India was “basically an autocracy of hierarchically organised officials headed by the Viceroy and the Secretary of State”: Sumit Sarkar, Modern India, 1885–1947, Madras: Macmillan India, 1983, p. 12.
- 17.
This argument underpins Tilly’s emphasis on the rise of ‘national’ and ‘autonomous’ forms of collective action (see Tilly, The Contentious French, pp. 392–393), as it does in the ‘parliamentarization’ of collective action (see Charles Tilly, ‘Parliamentarization of Popular Contention in Great Britain, 1758–1834,’ Theory and Society, vol. 26, 1997, pp. 245–273).
- 18.
A point recognised in relation to Gandhi by Tilly in a characteristic acute aside: Charles Tilly, Social Movements, 1768–2004, Boulder and London: Paradigm Publishers, 2004, p. 204. Judith Brown notes Gandhi’s attempt to appeal to governments in Africa , India, and England in Judith M. Brown, Gandhi’s Rise to Power: Indian Politics 1915–1922, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972, pp. 4–5.
- 19.
Mohandas K. Gandhi , CWMG, vol. 11, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1964, p. 113.
- 20.
Ibid., p. 112.
- 21.
Mohandas K. Gandhi , CWMG, vol. 18, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1965, p. 146.
- 22.
Leo Tolstoy , The Kingdom of God Is Within You, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1961.
- 23.
Mohandas K. Gandhi , CWMG, vol. 48, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1971, p. 438.
- 24.
Mohandas K. Gandhi , CWMG, vol. 7, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1962, p. 119; Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 23, pp. 196–197.
- 25.
Mohandas K. Gandhi , CWMG, vol. 29, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1968, p. 96.
- 26.
Mohandas K. Gandhi , CWMG, vol. 10, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1963, p. 65.
- 27.
Among the best guides to Gandhi’s actions as a protester are Dennis Dalton, Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action, second edition, New York: Columbia University Press, 2012; and Judith M. Brown, Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989.
- 28.
On Thoreau: Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 10, p. 65; Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 7, pp. 217–218 and 228–230. See also A.L. Hermann, ‘Satyagraha : A New Indian Word for Some Old Ways of Western Thinking,’ Philosophy East and West, no. 19, 1969, pp. 123–142.
- 29.
For examples of positive references to the suffragettes: Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 7, p. 453, and Mohandas K. Gandhi , CWMG, vol. 8, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1962, p. 188. See also Kevin Grant, ‘British Suffragettes and the Russian Method of Hunger Strike,’ Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 53, no. 1, 2011, pp. 142–143.
- 30.
For Gandhi’s awareness of Clifford’s campaign: Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 13, pp. 531–532. For contact with Clifford: Mohandas K. Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 9, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1963, p. 443.
- 31.
See especially: Thomas Weber, Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004; James D. Hunt, Gandhi in London, New Delhi: Promilla & Co., 1978; James D. Hunt, Gandhi and the Nonconformists: Encounters in South Africa , New Delhi: Promilla & Co., 1986.
- 32.
Ramachandra Guha, Gandhi Before India, London: Allen Lane, 2013, p. 44.
- 33.
Ibid., p. 45. See also Stephen Hay, ‘The Making of a Late-Victorian Hindu: MK Gandhi in London, 1888–1891,’ Victorian Studies, vol. 33, no. 1, 1989, pp. 75–98.
- 34.
A point made in David Arnold, Gandhi, Harlow and London: Longman, 2001, p. 39. For a history of the movement, see Bruce F. Campbell, Ancient Wisdom Revived: A History of the Theosophical Movement, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980.
- 35.
A point made in J.T.F. Jordens, Gandhi’s Religion: A Homespun Shawl, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998, p. 11.
- 36.
Weber, Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor, 2004, pp. 26–27; D.S. Devanesen, The Making of the Mahatma, New Delhi: Orient Longmans, 1969, p. 185.
- 37.
He published a series of articles on the theme of ‘Indian Vegetarians’ in The Vegetarian during 1891. See Mohandas K. Gandhi, The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, vol. 1, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1958, pp. 24–52.
- 38.
Ibid., p. 47.
- 39.
Ibid., p. 29.
- 40.
Ibid., p. 52.
- 41.
Ibid., p. 52.
- 42.
Ibid., p. 87.
- 43.
Guha, Gandhi Before India, p. 86.
- 44.
For example, see articles in Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 1, pp. 81, 82–86, 89.
- 45.
Ibid., p. 139.
- 46.
Ibid., pp. 139–141.
- 47.
Guha, Gandhi Before India, pp. 163–164.
- 48.
On Kallenbach : Guha, Gandhi Before India, pp. 286–287; on Isaac: Ibid., pp. 284–285. Doke’s book is Joseph J. Doke, M.K. Gandhi: An Indian Patriot in South Africa , London: The London Indian Chronicle, 1909.
- 49.
Guha, Gandhi Before India, pp. 316–317.
- 50.
Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, p. 95.
- 51.
Gandhi, cited in Guha, Gandhi Before India, p. 209.
- 52.
A point made in Kathryn Tidrick, Gandhi: A Political and Spiritual Life, London and New York : I.B. Tauris, 2006, pp. xi, 115.
- 53.
Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 28, p. 317.
- 54.
Calculations taken from the index to Gandhi’s Collected Works.
- 55.
Sidney Tarrow , The New Transnational Activism, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006, chap. 3.
- 56.
For example, Tidrick, Gandhi: A Political and Spiritual Life; Guha, Gandhi Before India.
- 57.
Over the 3 years around the salt satyagraha , June 1929 until August 1932, Gandhi referenced the Bible on nearly 20 occasions (calculations taken from the index to Gandhi’s Collected Works).
- 58.
For Thoreau : Lewis Perry, Civil Disobedience: An American Tradition, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2013, p. 11; for British radicals, including the suffragettes: as noted of James D. Hunt, Gandhi in London in: Guha, Gandhi Before India, pp. 208–209. For a general characterization of Gandhi as drawing from Eastern and Western traditions: Bikhu Parekh, Gandhi: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 3, 119.
- 59.
Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 13, 1964, p. 520.
- 60.
Quentin Skinner, ‘Language and Social Change,’ in James Tully, ed., Meaning and Context: Quentin Skinner and His Critics, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1988, p. 120.
- 61.
Michael Schudson, Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers, New York: Basic Books, 1978, p. 4.
- 62.
O. Boyd-Barrett, ‘Market Control and Wholesale News: The Case of Reuters,’ in G. Boyce, J. Curran , and P. Wingate, eds., Newspaper History: From the Seventeenth Century to the Present Day, London: Constable, 1978, pp. 206–207.
- 63.
M. Engel, Tickle the Public: One Hundred Years of the Popular Press, London: Victor Gollancz, 1996, pp. 111, 122.
- 64.
Leonard A. Gordon, ‘Mahatma Gandhi’s Dialogues with Americans,’ Economic and Political Weekly, 26 January 2002, p. 337.
- 65.
Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983, p. 49.
- 66.
Umberto Eco, ‘Silence is L(e)aden’, in Paul Foss and Meaghan Morris, eds., Language, Sexuality and Subversion, Sydney: Feral Publications, 1978, p. 78.
- 67.
T.C. Hodson, letter to The Times (London), 24 January 1941.
- 68.
Viceroy, Letter to the Secretary of State for India, 12 October 1931, India Office Library, MSS EUR E 240/5.
- 69.
S.S. Bean, ‘Gandhi and Khadi, the Fabric of Indian Independence,’ in A.B. Weiner and J. Schneidre, eds., Cloth and Human Experience, Washington , DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989.
- 70.
For example, F.B. Fisher, That Strange Little Brown Man Gandhi, New York: Ray Long and Richard B. Smith, 1932, p. 47; P. Wheeler, India Against the Storm, New York: E.P. Dutton and Co., 1944, p. 200.
- 71.
Clarence Marsh Case, Non-Violent Coercion: A Study in the Methods of Social Pressure, New York and London: The Century Co., 1923, p. 347.
- 72.
Leonard A. Gordon, ‘Mahatma Gandhi’s Dialogues with Americans,’ Economic and Political Weekly, 26 January 2002, p. 347.
- 73.
C. Seshachari, Gandhi and the American Scene: An Intellectual History and Inquiry, Bombay: Nachiketa Publications, 1969, p. 58.
- 74.
Scalmer , Gandhi in the West, p. 47.
- 75.
Kapur, Raising Up A Prophet, pp. 25, 45.
- 76.
A.J. Muste , ‘Observance of Gandhi’s Birthday,’ Peace News, 2 July 1948.
- 77.
For a full review of the literature, see Scalmer, Gandhi in the West, chap. 1.
- 78.
Lord Meston, ‘Gandhi,’ Sunday Observer, 4 October 1931.
- 79.
G.T. Garratt, ‘India,’ New Statesman and Nation, 1 October 1932, p. 380.
- 80.
Case, Non-Violent Coercion, 1923; Richard Gregg , The Power of Nonviolence, second (revised) edition, London: James Clarke and Co., 1960; Aldous Huxley, Ends and Means: An Enquiry into the Nature of Ideals and into the Methods employed in Their Realization, London: Chatto and Windus, 1969; Bart de Ligt, The Conquest of Violence: An Essay on War and Revolution , London: Routledge & Sons, 1937; Krishnalal Shridharani, War Without Violence: The Sociology of Gandhi’s Satyagraha, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1939.
- 81.
A point already recognised in Richard G. Fox, ‘Passage from India,’ in Richard G. Fox and Orin Starn, eds., Between Resistance and Revolution: Cultural Politics and Social Protest, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1997. Fox identifies the two misreadings of Gandhism that follow, dubbing them ‘Orientalist hyper-difference’ and ‘Western overlikeness.’
- 82.
C.M. MacInnes, The British Commonwealth and Its Unsolved Problems, London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1925, p. 124.
- 83.
J.F.C. Fuller, India in Revolt, London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1931, p. 174; n.a., ‘The Revolt of Passivity,’ Nation and Athenaeum, 6 August 1921, p. 670.
- 84.
Glorney Bolton, The Tragedy of Gandhi, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1934, p. 15.
- 85.
Ibid., p. 15.
- 86.
The term used (critically and with distance) in Frederick Bohn Fisher, That Strange Little Brown Man Gandhi, New York: R. Long and R.R. Smith, 1932.
- 87.
A.K. Jameson, ‘Gandhi’s Early Years,’ Peace News, 1 May 1937.
- 88.
E. Stanley Jones, Mahatma Gandhi: An Interpretation, London: Hodder and Staughton, 1948, p. 12.
- 89.
John Hoyland , The Cross Moves East: A Study of the Significance of Gandhi’s Satyagraha, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1931, p. 111.
- 90.
John Hoyland, ‘Gandhi’s Message for the West,’ Peace News, 28 April 1950.
- 91.
John Hoyland , Gandhi: The Practical Peace Builder, London: Peace Pledge Union, 1952, p. 7.
- 92.
Pyralel and S. Nayar , In Gandhiji’s Mirror, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991, p. 15.
- 93.
Hardiman, Gandhi, p. 253.
- 94.
Scalmer , Gandhi in the West, p. 63.
- 95.
Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 13, p. 262.
- 96.
Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 28, p. 127.
- 97.
Mohandas K. Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 48, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1971, p. 410.
- 98.
Mohandas K. Gandhi, CWMG, vol. 87, Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1983, p. 193.
- 99.
Ibid., pp. 192–193.
- 100.
For example., as noted in relation to the anti-slavery movement in particular: Andrew Porter, ‘Trusteeship, Anti-Slavery, and Humanitarianism,’ in Andrew Porter, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire, Vol. III: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 204; Alan Lester , ‘Humanitarians and White Settlers in the Nineteenth Century,’ in Norman Etherington, ed., Missions and Empire, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 64; John L. Comaroff, ‘Images of Empire: Contests of Conscience: Models of Colonial Domination in South Africa ,’ in Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, eds., Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1997, pp. 181–182; Elizabeth Elbourne, ‘The Sin of the Settler: The 1835–36 Select Committee on Aborigines and Debates Over Virtue and Conquest in the Early Nineteenth-Century British White Settler Empire,’ Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History, vol. 4, no. 3, 2003, pp. 1–46.
- 101.
An historical argument offered in Peter Stamatov, ‘Activist Religion, Empire, and the Emergence of Modern Long-Distance Advocacy Networks,’ American Sociological Review, vol. 75, no. 4, 2010, pp. 607–628.
- 102.
Hunt, Gandhi and the Nonconformists, p. 18.
- 103.
Scalmer , Gandhi in the West, p. 94.
- 104.
Ibid., p. 94.
- 105.
Thomas Weber, Going Native: Gandhi’s Relationship with Western Women, New Delhi: Lotus Collection (an imprint of Roli Books), 2011, p. 83.
- 106.
The biography referenced is Roy Walker, Sword of Gold: A Life of Mahatma Gandhi, London: Indian Independence Union, 1945, pp. 125–126. The works by Lester are My Host the Hindu, London: Williams Norgate, 1931; Entertaining Gandhi, London: Nicholson and Watson, 1932; and Gandhi’s Signature, Los Angeles: Fellowship of Reconciliation, 1949.
- 107.
Weber, Going Native, pp. 92–95.
- 108.
On Lester and Harrison, see Scalmer , Gandhi in the West, p. 95.
- 109.
Weber, Going Native, pp. 258–260, 292–294.
- 110.
Ibid., pp. 273–274.
- 111.
Scalmer , Gandhi in the West, p. 133.
- 112.
Weber, Going Native, pp. 296–297.
- 113.
Hunt, Gandhi and the Nonconformists, pp. 12–13.
- 114.
Scalmer, Gandhi in the West, p. 93.
- 115.
Gregg relates his visits to Indian in Richard B. Gregg, The Power of Nonviolence, second (revised) edition, London: James Clarke and Co., 1960, p. 11.
- 116.
For more on these connections, see Kapur, Raising up a Prophet, and Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism.
- 117.
J. Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I’ve Seen, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1998, pp. 69–70.
- 118.
The detailed history of these processes is relayed in Scalmer , Gandhi in the West, chaps. 4 to 6.
- 119.
A matter discussed at length in Scalmer , Gandhi in the West, ch. 6.
- 120.
Dave Dellinger, ‘Forget about Gandhi!,’ Peace News, 26 July 1963.
- 121.
For example, the success of the Montgomery bus boycott was increasingly invoked as an example of how nonviolent protest might be deployed to win demands. And Martin Luther King Jr. increasingly displaced Gandhi. See Scalmer, Gandhi in the West, pp. 168–173.
- 122.
Sidney Tarrow , The New Transnational Activism, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006, pp. 51–53.
- 123.
Ibid., pp. 51, 53–54.
- 124.
Ibid., p. 56.
- 125.
The position is most strongly associated with the work of Mario Diani and collaborators. See, for example, Mario Diani and Donatella della Porta , Social Movements: An Introduction, Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999, and Mario Diani and Doug McAdam , eds., Social Movements and Networks: Relational Approaches to Collective Action, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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Scalmer, S. (2018). Empire and Activism: Gandhi, Imperialism, and the Global Career of Satyagraha. In: Berger, S., Scalmer, S. (eds) The Transnational Activist. Palgrave Studies in the History of Social Movements. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66206-0_4
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