Human Smuggling Under Canadian Refugee Law: Protecting a System, Not Persons

Houle, France; Allister, Karine Mac

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-99508-3_4

France Houle¹⁴ &
Karine Mac Allister¹⁵

Part of the book series: Ius Comparatum - Global Studies in Comparative Law ((GSCL,volume 31))

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2 Citations

Abstract

This article examines the legal regime applying to asylum seekers arriving irregularly and categorised as ‘designated foreign nationals’ in Canadian refugee law. Our main contention is that changes to the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act have created a new regime for a category of asylum seekers whom the Canadian government considers with suspicion and mistrust. This article highlights some of the most striking features of the legal regime applying to designated foreign nationals under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act. It is followed by a discussion of how the regime for designated foreign nationals fares with Canada’s obligations under international law, the rule of law, and the principles of justice and humanity.

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Notes

1.
See Hathaway (1990), p. 129.
2.
The Constitution Act, 1982, Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c 11, s 7; see Trindade Cançado (2013), pp. 151–152, 275–276.
3.
On considerations of humanity, used on matters of racial discrimination and self-determination, see Brownlie (2008), p. 27.
4.
Prosecutor v Anto Furundzija, ICTY Trial Chamber, Case No. IT-95-17/1-T, 10 December 1998, 72.
5.
Meron (2006), p. 6. A similar position can be found in Emmanuelli (2009), p. 24.
6.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, SC 2001, c 27, s 3(2) (c) (version in force since 1 January 2015) (hereinafter IRPA).
7.
See Bhandari and Amaransingam (2014).
8.
For a more critical analysis of Canada’s historic response to migrants arriving by boat, see Neve and Russell (2011), pp. 38–40.
9.
See Derosa (2012).
10.
Ibid.
11.
Cleveland et al. (2012), p. 16.
12.
Nakache (2011), p. 61.
13.
[Emphasis added] House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no. 090, 1st sess., 41st Parliament (Hansard) 6 March 2012, Hon. Jason Kenney.
14.
Report of the United Nations Secretary General’s Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka, 31 March 2011, ii–iii and 55–66; For a similar analysis, see Nakache (2011), p. 61.
15.
Canada’s response to boat arrivals is not spotless; for a critical review of Canada’s response to asylum-seekers arriving by boats, see Rygiel (2012), pp. 211, 223–224.
16.
See Bhandari and Amaransingam (2014).
17.
See Collin and Jimenez (2013), pp. 751, 754–755, 759.
18.
See Hathaway (1990), p. 175.
19.
Neve and Russell (2011), p. 37.
20.
Ibid., 38.
21.
Acer (2002), pp. 44, 45; Collin and Jimenez (2013), p. 760.
22.
Austen (2014) and Cheadle (2014).
23.
House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no. 082, 1st sess., 41st Parliament (Hansard), 16 February 2012, Citizenship and Immigration, Mr Costas Menegakis.
24.
House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no 012, 1st sess., 41st Parliament (Hansard), 21 June 2011, Preventing Human Smugglers from Abusing Canada’s Immigration System Act, Hon. Vic Toews (Minister of Public Safety, CPC); House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no 108, 1st sess., 41st Parliament (Hansard), Hon Jason Kenney, 1240.
25.
House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no. 012, 1st sess., 41st Parliament.
26.
Ibid; House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no. 090, 1st sess., 41st Parliament.
27.
Crépeau (2013), p. 3.
28.
See, for instance, House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no. 108, 1st sess., 41st Parliament, Ms A Minh-Thu Quach, see above n. 24, 1310; The Canadian Bar Association, ‘Bill C-31: Protecting Canada’s Immigration System Act,’ National Immigration Law Section (April 2012) 35. Available at http://www.cba.org/ABC/memoires/PDF/12-27-fr.pdf; Frelick and Egsgard (2012); Neve and Russell (2011), p. 42.
29.
R. v. Appulonappa (2015) SCC 59. Available at: https://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/15648/1/document.do. In this case, the appeals are allowed and the charges are remitted for trial. Section 117 is unconstitutional insofar as it permits prosecution for humanitarian aid to undocumented entrants, mutual assistance amongst asylum seekers or assistance to family members.
30.
An Act to Amend the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, the Balanced Refugee Reform Act and the Marine Transportation Security Act, Bill C-49 (Introduction and First Reading in the House of Commons – 21st October 2010), 3rd sess., 40th Parliament.
31.
House of Commons Debates, Vol. 146, No 012, 1st sess., 41st Parliament.
32.
An Act to Amend the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, The Balanced Refugee Reform Act, the Marine Transportation Security Act and the Department of Citizenship and Immigration Act, Bill C-31 (Royal Assent – 28 June 2012), 1st sess., 41st Parliament.
33.
House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no. 090, 1st sess., 41st Parliament, 1240.
34.
See Derosa (2012).
35.
House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no. 012, 1st sess., 41st Parliament.
36.
House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no. 082, 1st sess., 41st Parliament.
37.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations [IRPA], s 96.
38.
Crépeau (2011), pp. 31, 35.
39.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, s 95.
40.
Ibid., IRPA, s 97(1)(a)(b).
41.
Ibid., IRPA, s 99(1).
42.
Ibid., IRPA, s 99(2) 12(3).
43.
GOC (2014).
44.
GOC (2013).
45.
See for instance, The Canadian Bar Association, ‘Bill C-31: Protecting Canada’s Immigration System Act,’ 19–20.
46.
See Derosa (2012).
47.
GOC (2014).
48.
See Corrigan (2013).
49.
Dauvergne (2013).
50.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, s 81.
51.
The Canadian Bar Association, ‘Bill C-31: Protecting Canada’s Immigration System Act,’ 35–36.
52.
[Emphasis added] Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, s 20.1(1).
53.
GOC (2012); See also Cannon (2013), p. 6.
54.
See ibid., Cannon, 7.
55.
UN Committee against Torture, ‘Concluding Observations of the Committee against Torture – Canada’, UN Doc CAT/C/CAN/CO/6 (2012), para 13.
56.
See interview with C. Dauvergne in Derosa (2012).
57.
The Canadian Bar Association, ‘Bill C-31: Protecting Canada’s Immigration System Act’, 35, 37.
58.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, s 117(1).
59.
Ibid., IRPA, s 37(1) (b).
60.
Ibid., IRPA, s 112(3) and 113(d).
61.
Ibid., IRPA, s 101(1) (f).
62.
Ibid., IRPA, s 97 and s 113(d).
63.
For a discussion, see Factum of the Intervener, The Canadian Council for Refugees, File nos 35685, 35677, 35688, 35388, 35958, 30 January 2015, paras 15–28. Available at: http://www.scc-csc.gc.ca/factums-memoires/35958/FM040_Intervener_Canadian-Council-for-Refugees.pdf; Factum of the Intervener, Canadian Association of Refugee Lawyers, SCC File nos 35888, 35677, 35677, 35685, 35688, 35958, 2 February 2015, paras 3–5. Available at: https://www.scc-csc.ca/WebDocuments-DocumentsWeb/35677/FM080_Intervener_Canadian-Association-of-Refugee-Lawyers.pdf
64.
See ibid., Factum of the Intervener, Canadian Association of Refugee Lawyers, para 6.
65.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, ss 25(1), 114(1).
66.
Factum of the Intervener, Canadian Association of Refugee Lawyers, paras 13–18.
67.
Ibid., para 30.
68.
Francis Anthonimuthu Appulonappa, et al v Her Majesty the Queen, et al.
69.
R. v. Appulonappa, [2015 ] 3 S.C.R 754 at 756.
70.
R v Appulonappa, 2013 BCSC 31, 358 DLR (4th) 666, para 27.
71.
Ibid., paras 142–143.
72.
Ibid., para 19.
73.
Ibid., para 144.
74.
R v Appulonappa, 2014 BCCA 163, 373 DLR (4th) 1, summary.
75.
Ibid., paras 5, 40–41.
76.
Ibid., paras 41.
77.
Ibid., paras 129, 140.
78.
Ibid., para 143.
79.
See Factum of the Intervener, The Canadian Council for Refugees, paras 5–6; Factum of the Intervener, Canadian Association of Refugee Lawyers, paras 26, 32.
80.
[Emphasis added] Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, UN Doc A/55/383, 2241 UNTS 507 (entry into force 28 January 2004), Art. 3(a).
81.
Ibid., art. 2.
82.
See R v Appulonappa, 2013 BCSC 31, 358 DLR (4th) 666, para 86.
83.
Crépeau (2013), p. 2.
84.
Ibid., 2.
85.
Factum of the Intervener, The Canadian Council for Refugees, para 4.
86.
Ibid., para 4.
87.
The preamble also recognises the inherent dignity and equal and inalienable rights of all ‘as the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world’. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UN GAOR Res 217 A(III), UN Doc A/810 (1948), Art 1 and preamble, para 1.
88.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, ss 20.1(2).
89.
House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no. 012, 1st sess., 41st Parliament.
90.
See Cannon (2013); Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, s 56(1).
91.
Ibid., IRPA, s 56(2) and s 58.1.
92.
Ibid., IRPA, s 57.1(1)(2).
93.
Ibid., IRPA, s 57.1(2).
94.
Ibid., IRPA, s 58(1.1).
95.
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 28 July 1991, 189 UNTS 171, Art 3; The Constitution Act, s 9; Neve and Russell (2011), p. 42.
96.
Convention on the Rights of the Child, 20 November 1989,1577 UNTS 3, art 1.
97.
Cleveland et al. (2012).
98.
Nakache (2011), p. 37.
99.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, s 60.
100.
Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts 3, 16.
101.
Cleveland and Rousseau (2012), p. 6.
102.
Cleveland et al. (2012), p. 16; Cleveland and Rousseau (2012), p. 3.
103.
Wales and Rashid (2013), pp. 609, 610.
104.
Ibid., 609.
105.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, s 110(2)(a).
106.
Ibid., IRPA, s 110(1).
107.
Neve and Russell (2011), p. 44.
108.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, s 98.1.
109.
House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no. 108, 1st sess., 41st Parliament, Mr Craig Scott (NDP), 1215.
110.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, s 11(1.1), s 20.2(1) and s 24(5).
111.
Ibid., IRPA, s 25 (1.01) (1.02).
112.
Ibid., IRPA, s 31.1.
113.
House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no. 090, 1st sess., 41st Parliament.
114.
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulations, s 31.1.
115.
Ibid., IRPA, s 25 (1.03), s 58.1, s 98.1(1).
116.
On detention and the criminalisation of migration, see Bloomfield et al. (2015), p. 19.
117.
House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no. 012, 1st sess., 41st Parliament.
118.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art 14(1).
119.
Crépeau (2013), p. 219.
120.
Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, UN GA, UN Res 60/147 (2005), preamble.
121.
UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Commentary of the Refugee Convention 1951 (Articles 2–11, 13–37), October 1997, 98, para 2(1) and 99, para 2(2).
122.
UN Doc E/AC.32/2, 46 cited in ibid., 98, para 2(2).
123.
See UN High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR Guidelines on the Applicable Criteria and Standards relating to the Detention of Asylum-Seekers and Alternatives to Detention, 2012, Guideline 1.
124.
‘The term ‘coming directly’ refers, of course, to persons who have come directly from their country of origin or a country where their life or freedom was threatened, but also the persons who have been in an intermediary country for a short time without having received asylum there.’ UN High Commissioner for Refugees, The Refugee Convention, 1951: the Travaux préparatoires Analysed with a Commentary by Dr. Paul Weis, 1990, 219.
125.
UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Commentary of the Refugee Convention 1951, 101–102.
126.
UN High Commissioner for Refugees, The Refugee Convention, 1951: the Travaux préparatoires, 219.
127.
See UN High Commissioner for Refugees, 104.
128.
Crépeau (2013), p. 7.
129.
UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Commentary of the Refugee Convention 1951, 106; UN High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR's Revised Guidelines on Applicable Criteria and Standards Relating to the Detention of Asylum-Seekers, 26 February 1999, Guideline 3(ii)(iii)(iv).
130.
UN High Commissioner for Refugees, The Refugee Convention, 1951: the Travaux préparatoires, 220.
131.
See for instance, Charkaoui v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2007 SCC 9, [2007] 1 SCR 350.
132.
[Emphasis added] UN High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR’s Revised Guidelines on Applicable Criteria and Standards Relating to the Detention of Asylum-Seekers, para 3; UNHCR’s Guidelines on Applicable Criteria and Standards Relating to the Detention of Asylum-Seekers and Alternatives to Detention, Guideline 4.3, para 5.
133.
UNHCR Guidelines on the Applicable Criteria and Standards Relating to the Detention of Asylum-Seekers and Alternatives to Detention, ibid., Guideline 4, paras 18–19.
134.
Ibid., Guideline 3, para 15.
135.
UN High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR’s Revised Guidelines on Applicable Criteria and Standards Relating to the Detention of Asylum-Seekers, Guideline 3(iv).
136.
Ibid., Guideline 2.
137.
Arguing detention has become a management tool to restrict the right to freedom of movement of irregular migrants and refugees, see Rygiel (2012).
138.
UN High Commissioner for Refugees, 106; UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), UNHCR’s Revised Guidelines on Applicable Criteria and Standards Relating to the Detention of Asylum-Seekers, Guideline 3.
139.
Bloomfield et al. (2015), pp. 59–60.
140.
Sahin v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), [1995] 1 FCR 214, 24 CRR (2d) 276, para 12.
141.
UN High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR’s Revised Guidelines on Applicable Criteria and Standards Relating to the Detention of Asylum-Seekers, Guideline 4; Bloomfield et al. (2015), pp. 116–117.
142.
UNHCR Guidelines on the Applicable Criteria and Standards Relating to the Detention of Asylum-Seekers and Alternatives to Detention, Guideline 9.2, para 51.
143.
Convention on the Rights of the Child, art 37.
144.
Global Detention Project, Canada Detention Profile, March 2012, 1.
145.
Ibid., 1, 7.
146.
Ibid., 1.
147.
Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, art. 28(1).
148.
Ibid., art. 34.
149.
Rygiel (2012), p. 231.
150.
On the externalization of migration, see Rygiel (2012), p. 213; see also Sahraei (2015).
151.
The Safe Third Country Agreement between Canada and the United States came into effect in December 2004. Arbel and Brenner (2013).
152.
Arbel and Brenner (2013), p. 2.
153.
House of Commons Debates, vol. 146, no 090, 1st sess., 41st Parliament; On Canada’s measure to block and intercept offshore improperly documented asylum-seekers, see also Arbel and Brenner (2013), pp. 4–5.
154.
Neve and Russell (2011), p. 40.
155.
See Poynter (2012).
156.
Collin and Jimenez (2013), p. 755; Crépeau (2013), pp. 5–6. On the rise of human smuggling across the Canada-US border since the Safe Third Country Agreement came into effect, see Arbel and Brenner (2013), p. 19.
157.
See Global Detention Project, see above n. 143, 5; Rygiel (2012), p. 214.
158.
See for instance Doherty (2015a, b): ‘In Australia, in 2010–2011, there were over 1100 incidents of self-harm in immigration detention centres, including 6 suicides, for a population of about 6000 people, most of whom had been detained for less than a year. This is over 10 times the suicide rate in the general Canadian population’. Cleveland and Rousseau (2012), p. 3.
159.
Report of the Secretary-General, Delivering Justice: Programme of Action to Strengthen the Rule of Law at the National and International Levels, UN GAOR, UN Doc A/66/749 (2012), paras 1,6.
160.
Arguing detention has not reduced irregular migration. See for instance, Bloomfield et al. (2015), p. 21.
161.
See BBC News (2015).
162.
Crépeau (2013), p. 6.
163.
Bloomfield et al. (2015), pp. 24–25.
164.
Report of the Secretary-General, Responsibility to Protect: Timely and Decisive Response, UNSCOR, UN Doc S/2012/578 (2012), para 2.
165.
S. Rehaag et al., ‘Legislation Won’t Stop Asylum Seekers Using Human Smugglers: Abuses must be Stopped Abroad that Lead People to Flee Home Nations’ Edmonton Journal, 2 November 2010.
166.
Dauvergne (2013).

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Key Legislation, Agreements, Cases

The Constitution Act
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Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Regulation
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An Act to Amend the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, the Balanced Refugee Reform Act and the Marine Transportation Security Act,
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Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
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Safe Third Country Agreement
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Prosecutor v Anto Furundzija
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R. v. Appulonappa
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Sahin v Canada
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Faculty of Law, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
France Houle
CAIJ, Montreal, QC, Canada
Karine Mac Allister

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Law and Anthropology, Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, Halle (Saale), Germany
Marie-Claire Foblets
Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium
Jean-Yves Carlier

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Houle, F., Allister, K.M. (2022). Human Smuggling Under Canadian Refugee Law: Protecting a System, Not Persons. In: Foblets, MC., Carlier, JY. (eds) Law and Migration in a Changing World. Ius Comparatum - Global Studies in Comparative Law, vol 31. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99508-3_4

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