Abstract
Disorders of Sex Development (DSD) are congenital conditions where the development of chromosomal, gonadal or anatomical sex is atypical. In most cases this is due to a breakdown of gene regulatory networks that are responsible for appropriate gonad development. Studies in humans and mice have identified a number of genes that play critical roles in testis and ovary development. In this chapter we review some of the key genes involved in gonad development and describe how defects affecting these genes result in DSD.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Achermann JC, Ito M, Hindmarsh PC et al (1999) A mutation in the gene encoding steroidogenic factor-1 causes XY sex reversal and adrenal failure in humans. Nat Genet 22(2):125–126
Arango NA, Lovell-Badge R, Behringer RR (1999) Targeted mutagenesis of the endogenous mouse Mis gene promoter: in vivo definition of genetic pathways of vertebrate sexual development. Cell 99(4):409–419
Armstrong JF, Pritchard-Jones K, Bickmore WA et al (1993) The expression of the Wilms’ tumour gene, WT1, in the developing mammalian embryo. Mech Dev 40(1–2):85–97
Barbaro M, Oscarson M, Schoumans J et al (2007) Isolated 46,XY gonadal dysgenesis in two sisters caused by a Xp21.2 interstitial duplication containing the DAX1 gene. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92(8):3305–3313
Barbaro M, Balsamo A, Anderlid BM et al (2009) Characterization of deletions at 9p affecting the candidate regions for sex reversal and deletion 9p syndrome by MLPA. Eur J Hum Genet 17(11):1439–1447
Barbaux S, Niaudet P, Gubler MC et al (1997) Donor splice-site mutations in WT1 are responsible for Frasier syndrome. Nat Genet 17(4):467–470
Barrionuevo F, Bagheri-Fam S, Klattig J et al (2006) Homozygous inactivation of Sox9 causes complete XY sex reversal in mice. Biol Reprod 74(1):195–201
Baumstark A, Barbi G, Djalali M et al (1996) Xp-duplications with and without sex reversal. Hum Genet 97(1):79–86
Bernard P, Harley VR (2007) Wnt4 action in gonadal development and sex determination. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 39(1):31–43
Berta P, Hawkins JR, Sinclair AH et al (1990) Genetic evidence equating SRY and the testis-determining factor. Nature 348(6300):448–450
Biason-Lauber A, Konrad D, Navratil F et al (2004) A WNT4 mutation associated with Mullerian-duct regression and virilization in a 46, XX woman. N Engl J Med 351(8):792–798
Biason-Lauber A, Konrad D, Meyer M et al (2009) Ovaries and female phenotype in a girl with 46, XY karyotype and mutations in the CBX2 gene. Am J Hum Genet 84(5):658–663
Bowles J, Cooper L, Berkman J et al (1999) Sry requires a CAG repeat domain for male sex determination in Mus musculus. Nat Genet 22(4):405–408
Burris TP, Guo W, Le T et al (1995) Identification of a putative steroidogenic factor-1 response element in the DAX-1 promoter. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 214(2):576–581
Calvari V, Bertini V, De Grandi A et al (2000) A new submicroscopic deletion that refines the 9p region for sex reversal. Genomics 65(3):203–212
Cameron FJ, Sinclair AH (1997) Mutations in SRY and SOX9: testis-determining genes. Hum Mutat 9(5):388–395
Chassot AA, Ranc F, Gregoire EP et al (2008) Activation of beta-catenin signaling by Rspo1 controls differentiation of the mammalian ovary. Hum Mol Genet 17(9):1264–1277
Colvin JS, Green RP, Schmahl J et al (2001) Male-to-female sex reversal in mice lacking fibroblast growth factor 9. Cell 104(6):875–889
Crisponi L, Deiana M, Loi A et al (2001) The putative forkhead transcription factor FOXL2 is mutated in blepharophimosis/ptosis/epicanthus inversus syndrome. Nat Genet 27(2):159–166
de Santa BP, Mejean C, Moniot B et al (2001) Steroidogenic factor-1 contributes to the cyclic-adenosine monophosphate down-regulation of human SRY gene expression. Biol Reprod 64(3):775–783
Foster JW, Dominguez-Steglich MA, Guioli S et al (1994) Campomelic dysplasia and autosomal sex reversal caused by mutations in an SRY-related gene. Nature 372(6506):525–530
Giese K, Cox J, Grosschedl R (1992) The HMG domain of lymphoid enhancer factor 1 bends DNA and facilitates assembly of functional nucleoprotein structures. Cell 69(1):185–195
Gordon CT, Tan TY, Benko S et al (2009) Long-range regulation at the SOX9 locus in development and disease. J Med Genet 46(10):649–656
Hammes A, Guo JK, Lutsch G et al (2001) Two splice variants of the Wilms’ tumor 1 gene have distinct functions during sex determination and nephron formation. Cell 106(3):319–329
Hanley NA, Hagan DM, Clement-Jones M et al (2000) SRY, SOX9, and DAX1 expression patterns during human sex determination and gonadal development. Mech Dev 91(1–2):403–407
Hannenhalli S, Kaestner KH (2009) The evolution of Fox genes and their role in development and disease. Nat Rev Genet 10(4):233–240
Hossain A, Saunders GF (2001) The human sex-determining gene SRY is a direct target of WT1. J Biol Chem 276(20):16817–16823
Huang B, Wang S, Ning Y et al (1999) Autosomal XX sex reversal caused by duplication of SOX9. Am J Med Genet 87(4):349–353
Hughes IA, Houk C, Ahmed SF et al (2006) Consensus statement on management of intersex disorders. Arch Dis Child 91(7):554–563
Jordan BK, Mohammed M, Ching ST et al (2001) Up-regulation of WNT-4 signaling and dosage-sensitive sex reversal in humans. Am J Hum Genet 68(5):1102–1109
Jordan BK, Shen JH, Olaso R et al (2003) Wnt4 overexpression disrupts normal testicular vasculature and inhibits testosterone synthesis by repressing steroidogenic factor 1/beta-catenin synergy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100(19):10866–10871
Katoh-Fukui Y, Tsuchiya R, Shiroishi T et al (1998) Male-to-female sex reversal in M33 mutant mice. Nature 393(6686):688–692
Katoh-Fukui Y, Owaki A, Toyama Y et al (2005) Mouse Polycomb M33 is required for splenic vascular and adrenal gland formation through regulating Ad4BP/SF1 expression. Blood 106(5):1612–1620
Kim Y, Capel B (2006) Balancing the bipotential gonad between alternative organ fates: a new perspective on an old problem. Dev Dyn 235(9):2292–2300
Kim Y, Kobayashi A, Sekido R et al (2006) Fgf9 and Wnt4 act as antagonistic signals to regulate mammalian sex determination. PLoS Biol 4(6):e187
Kim Y, Bingham N, Sekido R et al (2007) Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 regulates proliferation and Sertoli differentiation during male sex determination. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(42):16558–16563
Koopman P, Gubbay J, Vivian N et al (1991) Male development of chromosomally female mice transgenic for Sry. Nature 351(6322):117–121
Kreidberg JA, Sariola H, Loring JM et al (1993) WT-1 is required for early kidney development. Cell 74(4):679–691
Lourenco D, Brauner R, Lin L et al (2009) Mutations in NR5A1 associated with ovarian insufficiency. N Engl J Med 360(12):1200–1210
Maatouk DM, DiNapoli L, Alvers A et al (2008) Stabilization of beta-catenin in XY gonads causes male-to-female sex-reversal. Hum Mol Genet 17(19):2949–2955
Matsuda M, Nagahama Y, Shinomiya A et al (2002) DMY is a Y-specific DM-domain gene required for male development in the medaka fish. Nature 417(6888):559–563
Moniot B, Berta P, Scherer G et al (2000) Male specific expression suggests role of DMRT1 in human sex determination. Mech Dev 91(1–2):323–325
Morais da Silva S, Hacker A, Harley V et al (1996) Sox9 expression during gonadal development implies a conserved role for the gene in testis differentiation in mammals and birds. Nat Genet 14(1):62–68
Muscatelli F, Strom TM, Walker AP et al (1994) Mutations in the DAX-1 gene give rise to both X-linked adrenal hypoplasia congenita and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Nature 372(6507):672–676
Ottolenghi C, Omari S, Garcia-Ortiz JE et al (2005) Foxl2 is required for commitment to ovary differentiation. Hum Mol Genet 14(14):2053–2062
Ottolenghi C, Pelosi E, Tran J et al (2007) Loss of Wnt4 and Foxl2 leads to female-to-male sex reversal extending to germ cells. Hum Mol Genet 16(23):2795–2804
Pailhoux E, Vigier B, Chaffaux S et al (2001) A 11.7-kb deletion triggers intersexuality and polledness in goats. Nat Genet 29(4):453–458
Parma P, Radi O, Vidal V et al (2006) R-spondin1 is essential in sex determination, skin differentiation and malignancy. Nat Genet 38(11):1304–1309
Pelletier J, Bruening W, Li FP et al (1991) WT1 mutations contribute to abnormal genital system development and hereditary Wilms’ tumour. Nature 353(6343):431–434
Poulat F, Girard F, Chevron MP et al (1995) Nuclear localization of the testis determining gene product SRY. J Cell Biol 128(5):737–748
Raymond CS, Parker ED, Kettlewell JR et al (1999) A region of human chromosome 9p required for testis development contains two genes related to known sexual regulators. Hum Mol Genet 8(6):989–996
Raymond CS, Murphy MW, O’Sullivan MG et al (2000) Dmrt1, a gene related to worm and fly sexual regulators, is required for mammalian testis differentiation. Genes Dev 14(20):2587–2595
Sanlaville D, Vialard F, Thepot F et al (2004) Functional disomy of Xp including duplication of DAX1 gene with sex reversal due to t(X;Y)(p21.2;p11.3). Am J Med Genet 128(3):325–330
Sekido R, Lovell-Badge R (2008) Sex determination involves synergistic action of SRY and SF1 on a specific Sox9 enhancer. Nature 453(7197):930–934
Sekido R, Lovell-Badge R (2009) Sex determination and SRY: down to a wink and a nudge? Trends Genet 25(1):19–29
Sekido R, Bar I, Narvaez V et al (2004) SOX9 is up-regulated by the transient expression of SRY specifically in Sertoli cell precursors. Dev Biol 274(2):271–279
Sinclair AH, Berta P, Palmer MS et al (1990) A gene from the human sex-determining region encodes a protein with homology to a conserved DNA-binding motif. Nature 346(6281):240–244
Smith CA, McClive PJ, Western PS et al (1999) Conservation of a sex-determining gene. Nature 402(6762):601–602
Smith CA, Roeszler KN, Ohnesorg T et al (2009) The avian Z-linked gene DMRT1 is required for male sex determination in the chicken. Nature 461(7261):267–271
Swain A, Zanaria E, Hacker A et al (1996) Mouse Dax1 expression is consistent with a role in sex determination as well as in adrenal and hypothalamus function. Nat Genet 12(4):404–409
Swain A, Narvaez V, Burgoyne P et al (1998) Dax1 antagonizes Sry action in mammalian sex determination. Nature 391(6669):761–767
Tomaselli S, Megiorni F, De Bernardo C et al (2008) Syndromic true hermaphroditism due to an R-spondin1 (RSPO1) homozygous mutation. Hum Mutat 29(2):220–226
Tomizuka K, Horikoshi K, Kitada R et al (2008) R-spondin1 plays an essential role in ovarian development through positively regulating Wnt-4 signaling. Hum Mol Genet 17(9):1278–1291
Uhlenhaut NH, Jakob S, Anlag K et al (2009) Somatic sex reprogramming of adult ovaries to testes by FOXL2 ablation. Cell 139(6):1130–1142
Vainio S, Heikkila M, Kispert A et al (1999) Female development in mammals is regulated by Wnt-4 signalling. Nature 397(6718):405–409
Val P, Swain A (2010) Gene dosage effects and transcriptional regulation of early mammalian adrenal cortex development. Mol Cell Endocrinol 323(1):105–114
Vidal VP, Chaboissier MC, de Rooij DG et al (2001) Sox9 induces testis development in XX transgenic mice. Nat Genet 28(3):216–217
Wagner T, Wirth J, Meyer J et al (1994) Autosomal sex reversal and campomelic dysplasia are caused by mutations in and around the SRY-related gene SOX9. Cell 79(6):1111–1120
Wilhelm D, Englert C (2002) The Wilms tumor suppressor WT1 regulates early gonad development by activation of Sf1. Genes Dev 16(14):1839–1851
Yu RN, Ito M, Saunders TL et al (1998) Role of Ahch in gonadal development and gametogenesis. Nat Genet 20(4):353–357
Zanaria E, Muscatelli F, Bardoni B et al (1994) An unusual member of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily responsible for X-linked adrenal hypoplasia congenita. Nature 372(6507):635–641
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
White, S., Sinclair, A. (2012). The Molecular Basis of Gonadal Development and Disorders of Sex Development. In: Hutson, J., Warne, G., Grover, S. (eds) Disorders of Sex Development. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22964-0_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22964-0_1
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-22963-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-22964-0
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)