Abstract
The paradigm for the structure of graphite is that of a staggered stacking of flat layers of carbon atoms (Figure 6-1). Individual layers, sometimes referred to as graphene sheets,1 are weakly bonded to each other and are composed of strongly bonded carbon atoms at the vertices of a network of regular hexagons in a honeycomb pattern.2 Both the properties and the morphology of graphite reflect its highly anisotropic structure. Due to the strong bonding within layers and the weak bonding between layers, the growth of graphite takes place predominantly along the edges of the layers (perpendicular to the c axis) and only very slowly normal to the layers (parallel to the c axis). As a result of the growth rate anisotropy, the anisotropic surface energy, and the crystallographic symmetry, the expected morphology for graphite crystals is that of tabular hexagonal prisms.3 However, well-formed natural crystals, such as shown in Figure 6-2, are rare,4 and it has been said that near-ideal crystals of graphite may be rarer than diamonds.5 Well-formed, laboratory-grown crystals of graphite are also uncommon. During the 1960s, graphite crystals from Ticonderoga, New York, and Sterling Hill, New Jersey, became a standard of perfection for experiments and for comparison with laboratory-grown crystals.6,7
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
M.S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, K. Surihara, I.L. Spain, and H.A. Goldberg, Graphite Fibers and Filaments ( Springer, Berlin, 1988 ).
E.J. Freise, Nature (London), 193, 671 (1962).
For a review of the relations between crystal structure and external shapes see, for example, Crystal Form and Structure, C.J. Schneer, Ed. (Dowden, Hutchison & Ross, Stroudsburg, PA, 1977 ).
J.A. Jaszczak, Mineralogical Record, 21, 427 (1991).
A.R. Ubbethode, Endevour, 24 (92), 63 (1965).
C. Patache, Am. Mineral, 26, 709 (1941).
S.B. Austerman, in Chemistry and Physics of Carbon, Vol. 4, P.L. Walker, Jr., Ed. (Marcel Dekker, New York, 1968 ), p. 137.
For a review of less ordered spherical carbons in carbon black, see A. Oberlin, in Chemistry and Physics of Carbon, Vol. 22, P.A. Thrower, Ed. ( Marcel Dekker, New York, 1989 ), p. 1.
H.W. Kroto, Nature (London), 329, 529 (1987).
S.E. Stein and R. Leonard, Mol. Struct. Energ, 2, 37 (1987).
D. Ugarte, Chem. Phys. Iett., 198, 596 (1992).
H.W. Kroto, J. Chem. Sot. Dalton Trans., 10, 2141 (1992).
H.W. Kroto and K. McKay, Nature (London), 331, 328 (1988).
D.D. Double and A. Hellawell, in The Metallurgy of Cast Iron, B. Lux, I. Minkoff, and E. Mollard, Eds. (Georgi, St. Saphorin, Switzerland, 1975), p. 509.
D.D. Double and A. Hellawell, Acta Metall., 22, 481 (1974).
D.D. Double and A. Hellawell, Acta Metall., 17, 1071 (1969).
S. Ametinckx, W. Luyten, T. Krekels, G. Van Tendeloo, and J. Van Landuyt, J. Cryst. Growth, 121, 543 (1992).
R.E. Smalley, The Sciences, 31, 22 (1991)
R.F. Curl and R.E. Smalley, Sci. Am., 265, 54 (1991)
R.F. Curl and R.E. Smalley, Phil. Trans.: Phys. Sci. Eng., 343, 1 (1993)
H.W. Kroto, A.L. MacKay, G. Turner, D.R.M. Walton and R.C. Haddon, Science, 261, 1545 (1993)
M.S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, and P.C. Eklund, J. Mater. Res., 8, 2054 (1993)
H.W. Kroto, J.E. Fischer, and D.E. Cox, Eds. ( Pergamon, Oxford, 1993 )
W.E. Billups and M.A. Ciufolini, Eds. ( VCH, New York, 1993 )
M. Hillert and N. Lange, Z. Krist., 111, 24 (1958).
R. Bacon, J. Appl. Phys., 31, 283 (1960).
R.T.K Baker and P.S. Harris, in Chemistry and Physics of Carbon, Vol. 14., P.L. Walker, Jr., and P.A. Thrower, Eds. ( Marcel Dekker, New York, 1978 ), p. 83.
G.G. Tibbetts, in Carbon Fibers, Filaments, and Composites,J.L. Figueiredo et al., Eds. (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1990), p. 73.
N.M. Rodriguez, J. Mater. Res., 8, 32–33 (1993).
A. Yoshida, Y. Hishiyama, and M. Endo, in Extended Abstracts of the 17th Biennial Conference on Carbon, Lexington, KY ( American Carbon Society, University Park, PA, 1985 ), p. 297.
S. lijima, Nature (London), 354, 56 (1991).
S. lijima, P.M. Ajayan, and T. Ichihashi, Phys. Rev. Lett., 69, 3100 (1992).
D. Ugarte, Nature (London), 359, 707 (1992).
D. Ugarte, Europhys. Lett., 22, 45 (1993).
D. Ugarte, Chem. Phys. Lett., 207, 473 (1993).
P.M. Ajayan and S. lijima, Nature (London), 361, 333 (1993).
S. lijima and T. Ichihashi, Nature (London), 363, 603 (1993).
D.S. Bethune, C.H. Klang, M.S. de Vries, G. Gorman, R. Savoy, J. Vazquez, and R. Beyers, Nature (London), 363, 605 (1993).
A.R. Patel and S.V. Deshapande, Carbon, 8, 242 (1970).
H. Murayama and T. Maeda, Nature (London), 345, 791 (1990).
W. Krätschmer, L.D. Lamb, K. Fostiropoulos, and D.R. Huffman, Nature (London), 347, 354 (1990).
R.C. Haddon, A.F. Hebard, M.J. Rosseinsky, D.W. Murphy, S.J. Duclos, K.B. Lyons, B. Miller, J.M. Rosamilia, R.M. Fleming, A.R. Kortan, S.H. Glarum, A.V. Makhija, A.J. Muller, R.H. Eick, S.M. Zahurak, R. Tycko, G. Dabbogh, and F.A. Thiel, Nature (London), 350, 320 (1991).
R.M. Fleming, T. Siegrist, P.M. March, B. Hessen, A.R. Kortan, D.W. Murphy, R.C. Haddon, R. Tycko, G. Dabbogh, A.M. Mujsce, M.L. Kaplan, and S.J. Zahurak, Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 206, 691 (1991).
P.A. Heiney, J.E. Fischer, A.R. McGhie, W.J. Romanow, A.M. Denestein, J.P. McCauley, Jr, A.B. Smith III, and D.E. Cox, Phys. Rev. Lett., 66, 2911 (1991).
R.L. Meng, D. Ramirez, X. Jiang, P.C. Chow, C. Diaz, K. Matsuishi, S.C. Moss, P.H. Hor, and C.W. Chu, Appl. Phys. Lett., 59, 3402 (1992).
Y. Yosida, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 31 Pt. 2, L505 (1992).
M. Klénn, in Dislocations in Solids, Vol. 5., F.R.N. Nabarro, Ed. ( North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1980 ), p. 243.
S. lijima, J. Cryst. Growth, 50, 675 (1980).
H. Morrogh and W.J. Williams, J. Iron Steel Inst., 155, 321 (1947).
B. Lux, AFS Cast Metals Res. J., 8, 25 (1972)
B. Lux, AFS Cast Metals Res. J., 8, 49 (1972).
JP. Sadocha and J.E Gruzleski, in The Metallurgy of Cast Iron, B. Lux, I Minkoff, and E Mollauri, Fris (Georgi, St. Saphorin, Switzedand, 1975 ), p. 443.
M.J. Hunter and G.A. Chadwick, J. Iron Steel Inst., 210, 117 (1972).
M.J. Hunter and G.A. Chadwick, J. Iron Steel Inst., 210, 701 (1972).
B. Miao, K. Fang, W. Bian, and G. Liu, Acta Metall. Mater., 38, 2167 (1990).
R. Brett and G.T. Higgins, Science, 156, 819 (1967).
R. Brett and G.T. Higgins, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 33, 1473 (1969).
M. Weathers and W.A. Bassett, Phys. Chem. Minerals, 15, 105 (1987).
Y.L. Orlov, The Mineralogy of the Diamond (Wiley, New York, 1977 ), pp. 14–15.
I. Simonsen, S. Chevacharoenkul, Y. Horie, T. Akashi, and H. Sawaoka, J. Mater. Sci., 24, 1486 (1989).
H.H. Stadelmaier, Z. Metallkunde, 51, 601 (1960).
K. Yamada, H. Kunishige, and A.B. Sawaoka, Naturwissenschaften, 78, 450 (1991).
P.R. Buseck, S.J. Tsipursky, and R. Hettich, Science, 257, 215 (1992).
TK Daly, P.R. Buseck, P. Williams, and C.F. Lewis, Science, 259, 1599 (1993).
L. Becker, G.D. McDonald, and J.L. Bada, Nature (London), 361, 595 (1993).
P.P.K. Smith and P. Buseck, Science, 212, 322 (1981).
S. Aman, E. Anders, A. Virag, and E. Zinner, Nature (London), 345, 238 (1990).
I. Wright, Nature (London), 365, 786 (1993).
S. Amari, P. Hoppe, E. Zinner, and R.S. Lewis, Nature (London), 365, 806 (1993).
E. Anders and E. Zinner, Meteoritics, 28, 490 (1993).
T.J. Bernatowicz, S. Amari, E.K. Zinner, and R.S. Lewis, Astrophys. J., 373, L73 (1991).
M.S. de Vries, K Reihs, H.R. Wendt, W.G. Golden, H.E. Hunziker, R. Hemming, E. Peterson, and S. Chang, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 57, 933 (1993).
V.N. Kvasnitsa and V.G. Yatsenko, Mineralogicheskii Zhurnal, 13 (1), 95 (1991).
C.S. Lemanski, Jr., The Picking Table, 32 (1), 11 (1991).
E. Stach, Z. Deut. Geologischen Gesellschaft, 103, 233 (1951).
L. Margulis, G. Salitra, R. Tenne, and M. Talianker, Nature (London), 365, 113 (1993).
L. Horvath and R.A. Gault, Mineral. Record, 21, 284 (1990).
B. Miao, D.O. Northwood, W. Bian, K. Fang, and M.H. Fan, J. Mater. Sci., 29, 255 (1994).
F. Laves and Y. Baskin, Z. Krist., 107, S. 337–356 (1956).
L. Becker, J.L. Bada, R.E. Winans, J.E. Hunt, T.E. Bunch, and B.M. French, Science 265, 642 (1994).
D. Heymann, L.P.F. Chibante, R.R. Brooks, W.S. Wolbach, and R.E. Smalley, Science, 265, 645 (1994).
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1995 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Jaszczak, J.A. (1995). Graphite: Flat, Fibrous and Spherical. In: Mendenhall, G.D., Greenberg, A., Liebman, J.F. (eds) Mesomolecules. Structure Energetics and Reactivity in Chemistry Series (SEARCH series), vol 1. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0005-2_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0005-2_6
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-010-4006-8
Online ISBN: 978-94-011-0005-2
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive