Abstract
This chapter deals with the determination of the main ship dimensions (length, beam, draft, side depth), following the estimation of ship’s displacement and the selection of other basic ship design quantities and hull form characteristics (hull form coefficients, powering, weight components, stability and trim, freeboard, load line), as required in the first phase of ship design, that is, the Concept Design. The various effects of specific selections of ship’s main dimensions etc. on the ship’s hydrodynamic performance, stability and trim, structural weight and construction cost, utilization of spaces, and transport economy are elaborated. The selection procedure is supported by statistical data and empirical design formulas, design tables and diagrams allowing direct applications to individual ship designs. Additional reference material is given in Appendix A.
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Notes
- 1.
William Froude (1810–1878) Eminent English engineer, naval architect and hydrodynamicist; he was the first to formulate correctly the law for ship’s water resistance and to set the foundations for modern ship model testing, by introducing a unique dimensionless similitude number (Froude number) by which the results of small-scale tests could be used to predict the behaviour of fullsized ships; of importance are also his contributions to ship’s stability in waves.
- 2.
Sometimes called “form” resistance, though correctly the residuary resistance is ship’s “total form dependent’ or pressure resistance.”
- 3.
However, an increase of length has typically significant negative side effects on some ship weight components (especially on structural weight and payload) and construction cost, as has been stated already.
- 4.
Fritz Horn (1880–1972): Eminent German professor of ship theory at the Technical University of Berlin; before becoming professor in 1928, he worked for the German shipbuilding industry and the navy; his main contributions are in the theory of antirolling tanks, propeller theory, including the theory of ducted propellers, and wave induced vibrations.
- 5.
Note that the hull form with smallest wetted surface for given displacement volume is the sphere (or floating half-sphere). This fact led recently designers to look into innovative hull forms of slow steaming cargo ships with ellipsoidal characteristics around amidships, which proves beneficial both with respect to low resistance and minimum ballast water requirements (see the E4 containership concept by G. Koutroukis and A. Pavlou of NTUA-SDL, VISIONS European academic competition 2011).
- 6.
Erwin Strohbusch (1904–1980) Leading German professor of ship design at the Technical University of Berlin after WWII; before becoming academician, he worked as naval architect in leading positions at the German Navy and at the Henschel aircraft industry as aerodynamicist and aircraft designer.
- 7.
Experience says: the smallest ship (least length) fulfilling shipowner’s requirements is generally the best (“optimal”).
- 8.
All below formulas refer to the data of old ships; they deliver in general larger lengths than used today in practice; they are, however, a good yardstick for evaluating possible ship lengths at the conceptual design stage.
- 9.
Every ship must have at least one collision bulkhead, one after peak bulkhead, and one bulkhead at the fore and aft boundaries of the engine room. In case the engine room is placed astern, the after-peak bulkhead coincides with the aft bulkhead of the engine room. The total number of bulkheads as a function of ship’s length L in accordance with the regulations of, for example, Lloyd’s Register is as follows:
L ≤ 65 m, N = 3 (4); 65 m < L ≤ 85 m, N = 4 (4); 85 m < L ≤ 90 m, N = 5 (5); 90 m < L ≤ 105 m, N = 5 (5); 105 m < L ≤ 115 m, N = 5 (6); 115 m < L ≤ 125 m, N = 6 (6); 125 m < L ≤ 145 m, N = 6 (7); 145 m < L ≤ 165 m, N = 7 (8); 165 m < L ≤ 190 m, N = 8 (9); L > 190 m, N as appropriate.
The above applies to ships with engine rooms placed astern (in parenthesis the corresponding number of bulkheads for the engine room placed amidships).
- 10.
It is can be readily shown that the (semi)sphere is the solid with the minimum surface area for a given enclosed volume.
- 11.
Assuming ship’s structure represented by a bending beam and her midship section approximated by the cross section of an equivalent tubular beam, of mean thickness t and perimeter p.
- 12.
Low values hold for ships with their mass (ship’s light ship mass plus deadweight) being concentrated in the holds region, for example bulkcarriers, particularly ore carriers; high values that may exceed even 0.45 hold for ships with voluminous and very high up extended superstructures, for example large cruise ships and to a certain extent RoPax ships.
- 13.
Maximum significant wave height, to be considered, is 4.0 m (for North Sea conditions); below 1.5 m sign. wave height, it is assumed that no water can flood the car deck of a RoPax ferry, if it complies with SOLAS 90 damage stability regulations.
- 14.
Considering also the parallel change of KG as a function of ship’s draft, especially its significant increase when moving from the light to the full load condition, it is obvious that the stability of a ship in ballast condition is generally less problematic than in full load condition.
- 15.
The heave/pitch motions of a ship are strongly coupled to each other and generally have comparable values of natural period, which makes the tuning/resonance of both motions with the encountered wave very undesirable. This can be overcome only by changing the course and/or the speed of the ship
- 16.
It is reminded that the midship sectional coefficient of a half sphere, which is the solid with minimum surface for given volume, is π/4 ≅ 0.7854.
- 17.
The introduction of “slow steaming” in container shipping in recent years partly affected these considerations; it is noted, however, that despite “slow steaming” in practical operation, containerships continue to be designed as “fast” cargo ships, but taking into account a “slow steaming” operation over certain period of their “life cycle.”
- 18.
The following semi-empirical methods proved in practice satisfactory for the for more precise calculation of the total resistance and powering of common types of ships in the preliminary design phase:
Holtrop, J., Mennen, G. G. J., “An Approximate Power Prediction Method,” Journal International Shipbuilding Progress, 29(335), July 1982.
Holtrop, J., “A Statistical Re-analysis of Resistance and Propulsion Data”, Journal International Shipbuilding Progress, 31(363), November 1984.
Hollenbach, U., “Estimating Resistance and Propulsion for Single-Screw and Twin-Screw Ships in Preliminary Design”, Proc. of the 10th ICCAS Conference, Cambridge, MA, June 1999.
- 19.
Whereas small inaccuracies in the estimation of ship’s weight may be balanced by slight changes of ship’s draft, this is very different when dealing with the proper estimation of weights of submarines, as there the imbalance of the sum of weights and displaced volume trivially leads to submarine’s inability to float in neutral equilibrium. Additionally, it must be ensured that in all cases the center of the overall mass must be below the center of displaced volume for the submarine to be stable (have positive stability).
- 20.
By definition, the breadth of deckhouses can be up to 0.92 B.
- 21.
The breadth of superstructures is larger than 0.92 B according to the provisions of the International Tonnage Measurement regulation.
- 22.
The poop deck is technically a raised stern deck that is rarely found on modern ships. In older sailing ships it could be seen as the elevated roof of the stern or “after” living quarters, also known as the “poop cabin”. Also, with the helmsman at the stern, an elevated position was ideal for both navigation and observation of the crew and the sails. In modern history of shipbuilding, it could be seen until the 1960s on the “three island” type cargo ships, with the bridge and engine amidships (raised quarterdeck), and forecastle and poop decks at ship’s ends. This concept was gradually displaced (and practically today disappeared) by the classical modern cargo ship arrangement, with the engine and bridge/superstructure placed astern, and having a ‘flush’ deck (extending unbroken from stem to stern, with no raised forecastle or quarterdeck) or keeping the forecastle at ship’s bow region.
- 23.
The minimum double bottom height for dry cargo and passenger ships, as specified in SOLAS, is B/20 or 2 m, whichever is less (but not less than 760 mm). For RoPax ships with large lower holds, this changes to B/10 and 3 m, whichever is less (SOLAS 2009). The minimum requirements for tankers are led down in MARPOL.
- 24.
It should be noted that the largest ship ever built entirely from aluminum alloy was the highspeed hybrid SWATH catamaran “HSS1500” of STENA LINES, with LOA 126 m, beam 40 m and service speed 40 knots (Fig. 2.78).
- 25.
A derrick is a lifting machine for hoisting and moving heavy objects, consisting of one or more movable booms equipped with cables and pulleys and connected to the base of an upright stationary mast. The movements of the boom (up-down-sideways-lift of weight) are supported by winches. A crane is a contemporary development of the derrick; in difference to the derrick, the movement of the boom is enabled by its turning base and the hoisting and moving of objects by means of cables attached to the boom.
- 26.
Indicative Fuel Oil Prices (June 2014): Heave Fuel Oil (IFO380) Singapore: 617.50 USD/ton, Rotterdam: 602.50 USD/ton, Houston: 612 USD/ton, Marine Diesel Oil (MDO): 915.50 USD/ton.
- 27.
Exceptions to the rule are the containerships, especially when in the full load/design condition they are expected to carry many containers on deck (causing a high center of ship’s mass). This leads to a significant amount of ballast in the full load/design condition, to ensure adequate GM; consequently, for a given DWT, the overall payload capacity decreases. Recent containership design developments and ship design optimizations/innovations, however, look for minimum ballast (zero ballast ships).
- 28.
In the past and in many countries around the world, it was popular to covert cargo ships (mainly general cargo type of ships) into passenger ships (mainly RoPax ships) by keeping the main hull unchanged. Trivially, with the added high superstructures typical to passenger ships, the stability of these ships could only be kept within regulatory margins by adding permanent ballast. In many cases this was accompanied by more severe design measures, like the fitting of streamlined “sponsons” on the ship’s hull, increasing the ship’s breadth and form stability. The latter design measure was also applied independently of the carried permanent ballast.
- 29.
This volume corresponds to the holds’ volume resulting from the ship capacity curves, thus by integration of the areas of the sections belonging to and bounding the respective hold (see Sect. 2.17.2).
- 30.
Summer draught or subdivision draught (RoPax ships) amidships.
- 31.
Intact stability: the stability of the ship assuming her buoyant hull intact.
- 32.
Damage stability: the stability of the ship in case of loss of her watertight integrity (LOWI).
- 33.
The transverse acceleration at certain position of a rolling ship is proportional to the distance of the reference point from the ship’s rolling axis (which is assumed passing near the ship’s mass center), inversely proportional to the square of T Φ (or directly proportional to square of the circular roll frequency ω Φ = 2π/T Φ). Obviously, the transverse acceleration increases with larger distances from ship’s roll axis and lower values of T Φ.
- 34.
φ f is an angle of heel at which openings in the hull, superstructures or deckhouses which cannot be closed weathertight immerse. In applying this criterion, small openings through which progressive flooding cannot take place need not be considered as open.
- 35.
Refer to the Explanatory Notes to the International Code on Intact Stability 2008a (MSC.1/Circ.1281)
- 36.
Oil tanker means a ship constructed or adapted primarily to carry oil in bulk in its cargo spaces and includes combination carriers and any chemical tanker as defined in Annex II of the MARPOL Convention when it is carrying a cargo or part cargo of oil in bulk.
- 37.
High-speed craft (HSC) is a craft capable of a maximum speed, in meter per second (m/s), equal to or exceeding: 3.7 * ∇ 0.1667, where: ∇ = displacement volume corresponding to the design waterline (cubic meter).
- 38.
They may also be applied to other cargo ships in this length range with considerable flare or large water plane areas.
- 39.
A small stern (rarely bow down) trim is often desirable and generally acceptable.
- 40.
A significant amount of ballast water in the design loading condition may be necessary for some types of ships, like containerships, carrying a significant number of containers on deck. Modern ship design concepts aim at significantly reducing the amount of ballast water both in the design load and the ballast condition, thus reducing both fuel cost and incurring additional cost for ballast water treatment in view of IMO’s guidelines on ballast water management (latest, IMO-MEPC.173(58), Oct 2008b).
- 41.
Including the location of nonwatertight openings of the ship’s outer shell.
- 42.
The International Load Line Convention has a long history, starting in 1890, when the first rules for a minimum freeboard for all ships departing from British ports (thanks to the British politician Samuel Plimsoll) were established. The first form of relevant international regulations was agreed in 1930 by 54 countries. In the framework of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the first International Convention on Load Lines (ICLL) was first approved on 5 April 1966 and entered into force on 21 July 1968. Some changes followed in 1971, 1975, 1979, 1983, and 1995, which never entered into force because of lack of enough flag state acceptances; the 1966 ICLL provisions were amended by the adopted Protocol of 1988, which entered into force on 3 February 2000. The intention of the Protocol of 1988 was to harmonize the requirements of the Convention on the survey and certification with the corresponding requirements of SOLAS & MARPOL 73/78. The Protocol of 1988 was once more amended by the 2003 Amendments, which were adopted with the Resolution MSC.143 on 5 June 2003 and entered into force on 1 January 2005, as well as with further Amendments adopted with the Resolution MSC.172 on 9 December 2004 and which entered into force on 1 July 2006.
- 43.
The ICLL regulations define the freeboard deck as the uppermost continuous deck of the ship, which is exposed to the weather and the sea. Thus, the freeboard deck is at least weathertight, but generally also watertight. Exceptionally, the authorities may permit the freeboard deck to be a lower deck (and not the uppermost, continuous deck), which must be continuous between the peak ballast tanks of the ship (fore and aft-peak bulkheads). In this case the space above this lower placed freeboard deck and up to the deck above it is treated as superstructure.
- 44.
[synthesis from Wikipedia] RMS Titanic was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean on 15 April 1912 after colliding with an iceberg during her maiden voyage from Southampton, UK to New York City, USA. The sinking of Titanic caused the deaths of 1,502 people in one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in modern history. On her maiden voyage, she carried 2,224 passengers and crew. The RMS Titanic was the largest ship afloat at the time of her maiden voyage and was thought to be unsinkable due to her very dense subdivision. She was lacking, however, a watertight bulkhead-deck and this was the main reason for her sinking. One of their most important legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), which still governs maritime safety today.
- 45.
The method refers actually to the “three island” ship concept, characteristic to ships with forecastle, bridge/superstructure amidships and stern poop.
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Papanikolaou, A. (2014). Selection of Main Dimensions and Calculation of Basic Ship Design Values. In: Ship Design. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8751-2_2
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