Skip to main content

Etched in the Skin: Pain, Methamphetamine Violence and Affect

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Life in Pain

Abstract

Very powerful in constructing the image of drug user suffering is a genre of websites that “demonstrate” the impact of drug addiction through the physical transformation of drug user faces. Websites such as “Faces of Meth” and “Faces of Addiction”, emerging either from police or the drug rehabilitation industry, trace the changes in drug user faces over time, usually showing the pain of extreme degeneration. Whilst there is an obvious critique of these strategies in terms of mobilising fear and the construction of horror, there is a deeper question as to how do we read pain in people faces and what sort of pain do we recognise when we see the faces of drug users in these types of images. The technique of reading the pain in faces has an ancient history, however 20th century medicine, re-recognised the face of pain through the 1934 work of German physician and photographer Hans Killian. The title of his work “Facies Dolorosa” assumed a clinical meaning. In recent times, reading pain from faces has been applied to a wide range of applications. In the case of drug users, reading faces is a primary mechanism to culturally inscribe pain. There are now algorithms for reading facial musculature, to provide an “objective” account of this subjective state. In this chapter I explore the rendering of the pain of drug user faces on “face-of-drugs” websites and how the reading of pain and violence in drug user faces has material impacts on how we read the faces of methamphetamine users and construct methamphetamine epidemics. I will then explore how this transformation of pain into a corporeal state creates affects. This rendering has significant implications for the cultural pain neuromatrix and how we communicate the pain of drug use. There are material consequences from etching the pain of drugs into faces.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Anderson, D. M. (2010). Does information matter? The effect of the meth project on meth use among youths. Journal of Health Economics., 29, 732–742.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, M. D., & Elsea, D. (2015). The meth project and teen meth use: New estimates from the national and state youth risk behavior surveys. Health Economics, 24(12), 1644–1650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atee, M., Hoti, K., Parsons, R., & Hughes, J. D. (2017). Pain assessment in dementia: Evaluation of a point-of-care technological solution. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 60, 137–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atee, M., Hoti, K., Parsons, R., & Hughes, J. D. (2018). A novel pain assessment tool incorporating automated facial analysis: Interrater reliability in advanced dementia. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 13, 1245–1258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atee, M. (2018). PainChek™: Solving the ‘silence of pain’ in dementia. Dementia Training Australia. Training Resource. https://www.dta.com.au/resources/painchek-solving-the-silence-of-pain-in-dementia/.

  • Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). (2014). National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2013. Illicit use of drugs chapter. Online data tables. Table s.20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). (2017). National drug strategy household survey 2016: Detailed findings. Drug Statistics series no. 31. Cat. no. PHE 214. Canberra: AIHW.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, T. C., & Jewkes, Y. (2012). The haunting spectacle of crystal meth: A media-created mythology? Crime, Media, Culture, 8(3), 315–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barras, V. (2014). Medicine and pain: History of a relationship. Revue Medicale Suisse, 10(436), 1374–1376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, W. (1999/1936). The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction. In H. Arendt (Ed.), Illuminations (pp. 211–244). London: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, T., & Holloway, K. (2009). The causal connection between drug misuse and crime. The British Journal of Criminology, 49(4), 513–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boileau, I., Dagher, A., Leyton, M., Gunn, R. N., & Baker, G. B. (2006). Modeling sensitization to stimulants in humans: An [11C] raclopride/positron emission tomography study in healthy men. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 1386–1395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bourgois, P. (1996). In search of respect: Selling crack in El Barrio (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chambliss, W. (2001). Power, politics and crime. Boulder: Westview.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, G. (2010). The meaning of suffering in drug addiction and recovery from the perspective of existentialism, Buddhism and the 12-Step Program. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(3), 363–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Das, V. (1995). Language and body, transactions in the construction of pain. In Kleinman, Das & Lock (Eds.), Social Suffering. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deleuze, G. & Guattari, F. (1987/1980). A thousand plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (trans: Brian Massumi). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberger, N. I. (2012). The pain of social disconnection: Examining the shared neural underpinnings of physical and social pain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(6), 421–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erceg-Hurn, D. M. (2008). Drugs, money, and graphic ads: A critical review of the Montana Meth Project. Prevention Science, 9(4), 256–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farren, M. (2010). Speed-speed-speed-freak. Port Townsend: Feral House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-Serrano, M. J., Lozano, O., Pérez-García, M., & Verdejo-García, A. (2010). Impact of severity of drug use on discrete emotions recognition in polysubstance abusers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 109(1–3), 57–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, J. L. (2015a). Opinion: Don’t panic: The ‘ice pandemic’ is a myth. Sydney Morning Herald.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, J. L. (2015b). Framing drug use: Bodies, space, economy and crime. Oxford: Palgrave McMillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, J. L., & Threadgold, T. (2004). Fear of Sense in a street drug market. International Journal of Drug Policy, 15(5–6), 407–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, A. (2010). The pastoral clinic: Addiction and dispossession along the Rio Grande. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, P. J. (1985). The drugs/violence nexus: A tripartite conceptual framework. Journal of Drug Issues, 15(4), 493–506.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grunau, R. V., & Craig, K. D. (1987). Pain expression in neonates: Facial action and cry. Pain, 28, 395–410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoti, K., Atee, M., & Hughes, J. D. (2018). Clinimetric properties of the electronic pain assessment tool (ePAT) for aged-care residents with moderate to severe dementia. Journal of Pain Research, 11, 1037–1044.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joe-Laidler, K. A. & Morgan, P. (1997). Kinship and community: The ice crisis in Hawaii. In H. Klee (Ed.), Amphetamine misuse: International perspectives on current trends. Amsterdam: Harwood academic Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karos, K., Williams, A. C., Meulders, A., & Vlaeyen, J. W. S. (2018). Pain as a threat to the social self: A motivational account. Pain, 159(9), 1690–1695.

    Google Scholar 

  • Killian, H. (1956). Facies Dolorosa. Das schmerzensreiche Antlitz. 2nd (extended ed.). Remscheid-Lennep: Dustri-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim-Lok, Oh A, Ahmad, P. H. M., Bullare Bahari, F., & Voo, P. (2016). Pain resolving in addiction and recovery: A grounded theory study. The Grounded Theory Review, 15(2), 8–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, J. C. (1967). Amphetamine Abuse. JAMA, 201(5), 305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kunz, M., Scharmann, S., Hemmeter, U., Schepelmann, K., & Lautenbacher, S. (2007). The facial expression of pain in patients with dementia. Pain, 133, 221–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, N. (2014). Ice age: Who has used crystal meth—And why? The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/ice-age-who-has-used-crystal-meth-and-why-23031.

  • Lee, N. (2017). ‘Ice Wars’ message is overblown and unhelpful. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/ice-wars-message-is-overblown-and-unhelpful-72719.

  • Linnemann, T. (2012). Governing through meth: Local politics, drug control and the drift toward securitization. Crime Media Culture, 9(1), 39–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linnemann, T. (2016). Meth wars: Police, media, power. New York: New York University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Linnemann, T., & Wall, T. (2013). This is your face on meth: The punitive spectacle of ‘white trash’ in the rural war on drugs. Theoretical Criminology, 17(3), 315–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luger, V., Feistle, F., Feistle, G., & Feistle, J. (2016). Killian’s photographs: “Facies dolorosa”, the countenance of pain. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 54(7), 502–504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manchikanti, L., Cash, K. A., Damron, K. S., Manchukonda, R., Pampati, V., & McManus, C. D. (2006). Controlled substance abuse and illicit drug use in chronic pain patients: An evaluation of multiple variables. Pain Physician, 9(3), 215–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKetin, R., Lubman, D. L., Baker, A. L., Dawe, S., & Ali, R. L. (2013). Dose-related psychotic symptoms in chronic methamphetamine users: Evidence from a prospective longitudinal study. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(3), 319–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKetin, R., Lubman, D. I., Najman, J. M., Dawe, S., Butterworth, P. & Baker, A. (2014). Does methamphetamine use increase violent behaviour? Evidence from a prospective longitudinal study. Addiction, 109(5), 798–806.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGinty, E. E., Choksy, S., & Wintemute, G. J. (2016). The Relationship between controlled substances and violence. Epidemiologic Reviews, 38(1), 5–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLeod, K. (2017). Wellbeing machine: How health emerges from the assemblages of everyday life. Durham: Carolina Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murakawa, N. (2011). The methamphetamine ‘epidemic’: ‘Meth mouth’ and the racial construction of drug scares. Du Bois Review, 8(1), 219–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien, M. L. (1998). Narcotics Anonymous as a social field: An ethnographic study of the project of self (Thesis/dissertation). Submitted to the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society, Faculty of Heath Sciences. Melbourne: Latrobe University.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Daly, O. G., Joyce, D., Tracy, D. K., Azim, A., Stephan, K. E., Murray, R., et al. (2014). Amphetamine sensitization alters reward processing in the human striatum and amygdala. PLoS One, 9(4), e93955. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093955.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olsen, Y., & Sharfstein, J. M. (2014). Chronic pain, addiction, and Zohydro. New England Journal of Medicine, 370, 2061–2063.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oosterman, J. M., Zwakhalen, S., Sampson, E. L., & Kunz, M. (2016). The use of facial expressions for pain assessment purposes in dementia: A narrative review. Neurodegenerative Disease Management, 6(2), 119–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, N. (2014). Meth mania: A history of methamphetamine. Boulder: Lynne Reiner Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Primavera-Lévy, E. (2011). Facing pain: Dr. Hans Killian’s photo book. Facies Dolorosa. Literature and Medicine, 29(1), 1–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prkachin, K. M. (1992). The consistency of facial expressions of pain: A comparison across modalities. Pain, 51, 297–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prkachin, K. M. (2009). Material effects of pain. Assessing pain by facial expression: Facial expression as nexus. Pain Research and Management, 14(1), 53–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prkachin, K. M., & Solomon, P. E. (2008). The structure, reliability and validity of pain expression: Evidence from patients with shoulder pain. Pain, 139, 267–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prkachin, K. M., Mass, H., & Mercer, S. R. (2004). Effects of exposure on perception of pain expression. Pain, 111, 8–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, T. (2002). The ‘risk environment’: A framework for understanding and reducing drug-related harm. International Journal of Drug Policy, 13(2), 85–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, M. (2001). Toward a bio-cultural and political economic integration of alcohol, tobacco and drug studies in the coming century. Social Science and Medicine, 53, 199–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, M. (2004). The social origins and expressions of illness. British Medical Bulletin, 69(1), 9–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, M. (2006). The face of social suffering: Life history of a street drug addict. Longrove Il: Waveland Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer, M., & Page, B. (2016). The social value of drug addicts: Uses of the useless. Walnut Creek CA: Left Coast Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Stafford, J. & Breen, C. (2016). Australlian DrugTrends 2016: Findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS). Australian Drug Trends Series No. 163. Sydney NDARC. https://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/ndarc/resources/national-idrs_2016_finalwith-customs.pdf.

  • Strathdee, S. A., & Bastos, F. I. (2002). From risk environments to safe havens: Understanding context in the development of harm reduction interventions for drug users. International Journal of Drug Policy, 13(2), 81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strakowski, S. M., Sax, K. W., Rosenberg, H. L., DelBello, M. P., & Adler, C. M. (2001). Human response to repeated low-dose d-amphetamine: Evidence for behavioural enhancement and tolerance. Neuropsychopharmacology, 25, 548–554.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strakowski, S. M., Sax, K. W., Setters, M. J., & Keck, P. E., Jr. (1996). Enhanced response to repeated d-amphetamine challenge: Evidence for behavioral sensitization in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 40, 872–880.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strakowski, S. M., & Sax, K. W. (1998). Progressive behavioral response to repeated d-amphetamine challenge: Further evidence for sensitization in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 1171–1177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Summerson-Carr, E. (2010). Scripting addiction: The politics of therapeutic talk and American Sobriety. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tchoula, W., Copes, H. & Linnemann, T. (2017). Creating visual differences: Methamphetamine users perceptions of anti-meth campaigns. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 39, 52–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas-McGill, K. (2017). Imagining the criminal body: Faces of meth and Galton’s composite photographs. In J. Bear & K. Palm Albers (Eds.), Before and after photography: Histories and contexts (pp. 43–99). London: Bloomsbury.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisheit, R., & White, W. (2009). Methamphetamine: Its history, pharmacology and treatment. MN Hazelden: Centre City.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, A. C. (2002). Facial expression of pain: An evolutionary account. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25(4), 439–455.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to John L. Fitzgerald .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Fitzgerald, J.L. (2020). Etched in the Skin: Pain, Methamphetamine Violence and Affect. In: Life in Pain. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5640-6_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5640-6_6

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-10-5639-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-10-5640-6

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics