Abstract
The pattern of acquisition of speech- and music-related skills during early stages of human infancy provides insight into the origins of language and music. Indiscriminate until shortly after birth, babies start gradually developing acoustic features in their vocalizations, as well as accompanying behaviors that make it possible to distinguish their attempts to speak from their attempts to sing. Comparative analysis of tonal organization of children’s original (nonimitative) vocalizations in their developmental succession throughout the first 3 years of life casts light on several important acoustic features. These features play an important role in the separation of music skills from verbal skills and shaping the primordial music system the infant uses to address his/her musical needs.
Much of the existing scholarship makes a fundamental error by interpreting the earliest forms of human speech and music in terms of “adult” state of their mastery, regarding children’s communication as a sort of “defective” imitation of adults’ models. Moreover, such models are significantly biased toward Western classical music and Indo-European languages, which despite their cultural importance in the modern world, nevertheless, constitute only a small fraction of typology of tonal musical and phonological verbal organization. A much more comprehensive approach toward children’s music and speech has been developed by Lev Vygotsky and his circle: Alexander Luria, Aleksei Leontyev, Alexander Zaporozhets, Peter Galperin, as well as Boris Teplov. They and their followers regarded children’s speech and music as reflecting a child’s own peculiar method of thinking. The Vygotskian approach shares much in common with that of Piaget and the neo-Piagetians, but offers an alternative framework for the explanation of the dichotomy between language and music—based on the methodology of intonation theory by Boleslav Yavorsky and Boris Asafyev. This theory was implemented in the State program of obligatory education within all territories of the former USSR; it had passed deep scrutiny throughout many years of administration over a massive population, which resulted in the creation of a special discipline of ear development that theoretically and practically dealt with the development of “musical hearing” as distinguished from “verbal hearing” throughout childhood. Unfortunately, much of this literature is unknown to Western developmental specialists. This chapter covers this gap, familiarizing English-speaking scholars with a unique perspective on early musical and verbal development by Soviet and modern Russian ear-training specialists, with special attention to the issue of absolute pitch.
Advances in the methodology of intonational analysis have made it possible to adequately describe and more deeply understand the principles that govern the tonal organization of non-Western types of music—including those that are based on timbre rather than pitch. This approach can be effectively applied to the analysis of both ethnological and developmental data—to identify common patterns of ontogenetic and phylogenetic development.
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Notes
- 1.
At present, research of which exact parameters of timbre are responsible for the perception of tension and relaxation in music remains in virginal state (Granot and Eitan 2011). The salience of specific harmonics can be perceived as increase or decrease in tension of sounds (Nazaikinsky and Rags 1964). Acoustic roughness is shown to have direct relation to the perceived timbral tension (Pressnitzer et al. 2000). The impression of timbral tension might originate in the conflicting interaction between the frequency- and time-based parameters of timbre (Volodin 1972). The dialectics of timbral tension and relaxation was laid into the foundation of the theory of phonism, elaborated by Nazaikinsky from the notion of phonism proposed by Tiulin for explanation of modernistic compositional styles of classical music (Tiulin 1937). According to Nazaikinsky, timbral tension constitutes a special form of harmonic interrelations between “dissonant” simultaneous combinations of musical tones, different from tonal and modal stability/instability by the peculiar integration of the holistic inseparability of a timbre with distinctions between different frequency components of a spectrum (Nazaikinsky 1988).
- 2.
There is some experimental evidence that listeners perceive the inflections of musical tension and relaxation due to timbral changes in music (Paraskeva and McAdams 1997). Granot and Eitan uncovered the evidence for the combination of loudness and register as being capable of inducing the sensation of changes in tension (Granot and Eitan 2011). Clarke also maintains that timbral and dynamic aspects partake in the generation of the impression of musical movement (E. F. Clarke 2001). Volodin established the presence of the parameter of tension in listeners’ perception of timbral differences in comparison of isolated tones (Volodin 1972). Mazepus identified the systemic use of timbral tension in many forms of indigenous music across Siberia—which he traced to the sensation of tension in the vocal folds and vocal articulations impeded by that tension (Mazepus 2009). Lerdahl recognized that timbre can be organized hierarchically into multidimensional timbral arrays, which would involve not only coordinational but also subordinational relations, thereby setting expectancies of resolutions in the manner of dissonance-consonance (Lerdahl 1987). An example of such hierarchical relationship between the timbral reductions of differing dimensionalities was demonstrated in the analysis of a traditional shakuhachi melody (Bolger and Griffith 2005). The gradations of tension in timbral modulations constitute the primary form of musical expression in deep throat singing of numerous traditions of Ural, Siberia, Mongolia, Far East, Kamchatka, Chukotka, Alaska, Canada, and Greenland (Sheikin 1996). This is also the only source of musical syntax in authentic traditions of Jew’s harp music and musical bow across the world. For Jew’s harps, the presence of syntactic/semantic organization by grouping of specific syllables in combination with a limited number of special effects is simply indisputable—most obvious in thorough method-books on Jew’s harp playing, such as by Robert Zagretdinov (Zagretdinov 1997).
- 3.
The same problem occurs even within the decidedly “frequency-oriented” music systems, including Western classical music. Thus, recitative semplice in French and English operas could be scored or spoken: e.g., Bizet and Balfe have it written out as notes in some operas, and not notated at all in some others. In Russian Imperial opera productions, recitative was always sung—even in those operas such as Italian or French that originally used recitative secco, as a rule performed parlando. Operas by Russian composers rarely, if ever, use parlando in recitatives. So, according to the approach by such scholars as Brown, Reybrouck, and Podlipniak, such recitative would constitute nonmusic inserted into music (opera), which however appears inconsistent, since the very same set of sounds is pronounced “music” in French production of a particular opera and “nonmusic” in its Russian production. Such metamorphosis is hardly acceptable for a scientific study of music.
- 4.
Unfortunately, this opus magnum, “Lectures on Pedology,” is still unavailable in English. Its first part (seven lectures) was published in 1935 by the State Institute named after Gertzen in Leningrad, whereas its second part was stenographed by Serapion Korotayev, Vygotsky’s assistant in the Institute, upon listening to these lectures. Korotayev prepared the materials for publication during his work at the Udmurt State University, while Vygotsky’s legacy was banned by the Communist authorities. Korotayev’s daughter completed the edition after Korotayev’s death. Only the fourth lecture has been translated in English (Vygotsky 1994).
- 5.
Von Hornbostel provides an example of such musicological misreading of the notated composition for shen composed within the traditional Chinese anhemitonic pentatonic system, giving the impression of being written in “E-flat major” (Hornbostel 1919). In general, modal music can be easily misinterpreted by false identification of “tonic.” The same set of pitch classes G-A-B-C-D-E can be interpreted as a hexatonic G Major or A minor, which can be figured out only upon examining the melodic functions of these pitch classes in a particular piece of music (Hornbostel 1913). This goes to illustrate the absolute necessity of distinguishing between a “scale” and a “mode.” Unfortunately, not all researchers of music make such distinction: e.g., Steven Brown and Richard Parncutt in their publications hold that “scale” and “mode” are synonymous. Such misunderstanding of music theory often leads to false generalizations. Thus, Doğantan-Dack assumes that resolution of unstable degrees of a pitch set into a stable degree at the end of music constitutes a universal rule in evolution of music (Doğantan-Dack 2013). In reality, a piece of modal music can finish on any degree of the mode, or even on a tone of “indefinite pitch,” whose glissando presents a contrast to the usage of “definite pitch” in the rest of the music and therefore performs its function of marking the end of the music (Kholopov 2005).
- 6.
Alekseyev describes a situation common for traditional Yakut music explaining that when a singer is asked to repeat his/her song, they reproduce only the melodic contour and the rhythm—the exact intervals between the adjacent tones of the same tune change (1976, 148). If asked about the pitch differences, performers usually become surprised and deny any difference, reaffirming that the music is exactly “the same.” At the same time, if tested in the manner of ear-training tasks, such singers have no trouble reproducing the pitch of an isolated tone perfectly in tune. When the singer is asked to sing the same song higher, he compresses its intervals to a smaller compass (Alekseyev 2013). Evidently, Yakut traditional music is based not on “pitch classes,” but on “pitch contours.” Similar to Yakut isomorphism was reported by List (1987) in relation to 11 performances of supposedly the same traditional lullaby Black Bug by Hopi Indians.
- 7.
Timbral contribution to tuning is significant. As William Sethares demonstrates in the chapter “The Octave Is Dead” in his treatise Tuning, Timbre, Spectrum, Scale: “Introducing a dissonant octave—almost any interval can be made consonant or dissonant by proper choice of timbre” (Sethares 2005). And, indeed, in practice of gamelan tuning, tones about an octave apart are often deliberately mismatched to produce a special timbral effect (Hood 1971). Timbral contribution to tuning is very “real”—and too bad that it is less measurable than fundamental frequency. However, this difficulty should not be reason for dismissing it altogether. Good science explains the unknown and does not dismiss it.
- 8.
Here and earlier, I have emphasized that Western researchers are more prone than Eastern European and Asiatic researchers to commit to circular reasoning and discover traces of tonality in music that was created on timbral or modal rather than tonal principles. This is because in majority of Eastern European and Asiatic countries there are strong indigenous traditions of modal music which can significantly depart from the heptatonic diatonic Western stereotype by using pentatonic, hexatonic, hemiolic, chromatic, micro-chromatic, non-octave and/or symmetric modes (Nikolsky 2016, Appendix-8). Researchers familiar with these and timbral forms of music (especially when they are native to researchers) are likely to be more open-minded in evalutation of infants’ musicking attempts than their “orthodox” Western colleagues.
- 9.
Another confirmation comes from a cross-cultural comparison between the Chinese- and English-speaking first graders: Chinese speakers show better singing performance than English speakers, indicating that speaking a tonal language enhances the perception and production of musical pitch (Rutkowski and Chen-Hafteck 2001). Even more specific is the finding of the experimental study by Mang who investigated the effects of age, gender, and language on the singing competency of 7–9-year-old Cantonese-speaking children (Mang 2006). She discovered that exclusive learners of tonal language acquired singing voice earlier than those children who learned English in parallel.
- 10.
I can attest to the latter from my own experience. Up until the age of 14, I did not possess any absolute pitch and could reliably detect degrees of a key, intervals, and chords only in a “relative” manner. After following the special methodology developed by Boris Utkin in the State Schnittke University, Moscow, for 2 years, in 1980, I developed a high-quality absolute pitch that enabled me to reproduce on the piano any simultaneous combination of up to four tones in series of up to three sonances in any register by any string, wind, or keyboard instrument tuned to A = 440 Hz (plus/minus 30–40 cents) without any mistakes. Moreover, all six of my classmates developed absolute pitch hearing of comparable reliability.
- 11.
The estimations of different methodologists and authors of ear-training courses range from about a half of their students (e.g., Dmitrii Blium, Nina Kachalina) to 80–90% (Boris Utkin, Vladimir Kiriushin)—according to personal communication. The historic review of different methodologies of absolute pitch acquisition is reviewed by Berezhansky (2000).
- 12.
This distinction is not exactly the same as “cultural” versus “natural”—because non-trained absolute pitch is only an indicator of the possibility of “natural” possession of it.
- 13.
Although Mozart adhered to the meantone model of making a chromatic semitone smaller than a diatonic semitone, following his father, the meantone model maintains the presence of 17 pitch classes in the same way as the Pythagorean-like model of the nineteenth century. It is just that Eb is higher in pitch than D#—in accordance with Longuet-Higgins. The meantone enharmonic distinction was true for the most of the classical music created before the nineteenth century: e.g., Haydn in his enharmonic modulation in the String Quartet op. 77 No. 2 used the transition from Eb to D# with the mark “l’istesso tuono,” indicating that the performer should not play Eb and D# as different pitches (Duffin 2007, 79–83). The first advocates of keeping enharmonic tones perfectly equal on string playing, such as Spohr, became vocal about it by the mid-nineteenth century, but their impact was small, affecting only performance in small ensemble with the piano (Barbieri and Mangsen 1991). For the piano tuning, equal temperament supplanted meantone tuning only around the middle of the nineteenth century (Shepard 1999).
- 14.
The 17-pitch model of a key by the mid-nineteenth century has caused the discrimination between tuning standards for enharmonically spelled keys. Thus, Alexandre and Provost conducted an experiment in 1862 by asking string players to perform the identical melody in F# major and in Gb major—to find that the tones of the Gb major were modified in a manner of bringing them closer to the minor mode to project a darker sound as opposed to more “brilliant” sound of F# major (Barbieri and Mangsen 1991).
- 15.
For example, French “florid organum” of the twelfth century is compositionally based on the timbral and textural contrast between the bright light “florid” upper part and the dark heavy “firm” lower part (Tischler 1956).
- 16.
It is possible that Western folk musicians might have adopted the absolute pitch following the model of classical music, since many musicians specializing in various forms of folk and popular music these days take formal schooling and obtain graduate degrees from conservatories and universities. However, in such a situation, the absolute pitch is likely to cause detrimental effects on musical expression due to the use of temperament that has to accompany the use of absolute pitch. Other than that, folk music seems to commonly feature “song-absolute pitch,” as indicated by the analysis of keys in folk song databases (Olthof et al. 2015).
- 17.
A number of methodological studies by ear-training specialists describe the integration of absolute and relative hearing in musicians with a well-developed musical ear (Garbuzov 1948; Seredinskaya 1962; Veis 1967; A. А. Agazhanov 1977, 1985; Geinrikhs 1978; Utkin 1985; Bytchkov 1993; Nazaikinsky 1993; Sladkov 1994; Karasyova 1999; Berezhansky 2000; Os’kina and Parnes 2001; Starcheus 2005). The evidence for alternation between absolute and relative modes of pitch processing was demonstrated even in the undeveloped autistic possessors of absolute pitch (Heaton 2003).
- 18.
For instance, Boris Utkin was able to consistently throw off the absolute pitch possessors with underdeveloped integration of absolute and relative hearing by improvising on the piano with long four-part harmonic progressions with the melody in the bass, engaging a chain of gradual and enharmonic modulations every 2–3 bars (e.g., the tonal plan like C major-G major-B major-G-sharp minor-G minor-D major-B minor-C major is likely to cause an untrained possessor of absolute pitch to mismatch the destination key and the initial key). Typically, if a possessor of absolute pitch names every key along the modulation path, the third or fourth enharmonic modulation (the above given chain contains two of such modulations, marked by italic) would leave him/her clueless unless they have developed a reliable relative pitch hearing. Yet another strategy for confusing a possessor of absolute pitch is to start the four-part harmonic modulation chain with strict chords and then start introducing the melodic motion in different parts by engaging non-chordal tones, with frequent changes from one part to another, effectively generating four-part polyphony while committing a chain of distant modulations (e.g., C major-E-flat major).
- 19.
This example was suggested and substantiated by Jivani Mikhailov in personal communication.
- 20.
Certainly, the research in and production of folk music were supervised and coordinated by the Communist authorities, which involved promotion of certain forms of music and suppression of some other forms (Frolova-Walker 1998). However, despite all abuses of formalistic treatment of national musics at the territories of USSR, the scale and quality of research, as well as the extent of popularization of folk music, was unparalleled by any Western country (Zemtsovsky 2002).
- 21.
See the brief summary of the modal typology, elaborated within the Soviet systematic musicology, and the example of modal analysis of the indigenous music in the Appendix-1, “Taxonomy of tonal organization of modal music” (Nikolsky 2015a).
- 22.
Elmer (2012) objects the approach of most researchers who evaluate early children’s songs in terms of diatonic intervallic type of Western tonality and define stages in tonal development based on correspondence of children songs to the samples of diatonic music. She proposes to use quarter-tone representation of children musicking and seeks to define stages of music acquisition without committing to diatonic quantization, relying not on compositional analysis of children vocalizations, but rather on behavioral aspects of their singing. Needless to say, the purely behavioral approach is futile for defining the features of TO and their interpretation in comparative analysis.
- 23.
For instance, Shvachkin gives examples of a boy who used the word dany in reference to a bell, a clock, a telephone, and a bellflower or a girl using the word “moo” to refer to a cow and to a big bird, whereas another girl using the very same word in reference to a cow and to a big dog (Shvachkin 1948). Such polysemantism often spreads as broad as to include the opposites of the concepts: e.g., the word “boo” in reference to lighting a candle up as well as to turning it off. Shvachkin explains the origin of this polysemantism by the Vygotskian concept of emotional experience (perezhivaniye—literally, “living through”). The first words of children refer to their “emotional experience” of a particular object rather than to an object in itself. The meaning of a word is comprised by the complex set of emotional experiences from perception of objective, affective, and functional characteristics of surrounding objects in reality. Their admixture is initially syncretic and poorly differentiated, semantically diffused to the extent of resembling a vague semantic circle over a delineated center point—e.g., the word foo used to refer to anything that has to do with warmth (p. 102).
- 24.
For example, I’m a Little Teapot and How Much Is that Doggie in the Window contain many leaps in different directions that make these tunes hard to reproduce for very young children; O Little Town of Bethlehem contains many chromatic alterations and Frosty the Snow Man, and even some folk tunes, such as Deck the Hall include modulations that demand reliable recognition of multiple pitch class sets. Such songs represent more of what those adults who were brought up on the Western tonality believe sounds “childish” enough to be suitable for children musicking.
- 25.
A well-known example of the cross-cultural formula that has earned the reputation of the “universal chant” is the succession of descending third, ascending fourth, and descending second, closed by another descending third (Hargreaves 1986, 68). This formula constitutes a musical semiotic phenomenon because it is universally related to playful teasing (Bjørkvold 1992, 71).
- 26.
Degrees can anchor, complement, oppose, or extremize (polarize) each other, projecting melodic attraction or repulsion. These functions do not permit conservation of pitch but do allow for rough estimation of intervallic distances between salient melodic tones. Each function becomes associated with a particular registral span in correspondence to that function’s valence. The larger the span, the more dissonant the melodic relation. Thus, anchoring is the smallest in range [functionally equivalent to the melodic unison], and it always strengthens the degree, with a confirming or insisting intonation. Unlike the anchoring, complementing intonation is larger in size, and one of its tones always attracts the other, making a softer impression than the anchoring intonation. The next in line of size is the opposing intonation that always involves rivalry, either between two anchors or two complementing tones. Finally, the extreme intonation gives the largest interval, generating the relationship of maximal discontinuity between two tones, causing rivalry not only between the tones but between the margins of the register—often involving timbral contrast. Consistent usage of these functions puts in place the notions of four intervallic zones, relative in size, distinguished by melodic functionality and semantic values. For more information see “Ekmelic mode” in (Nikolsky 2015a).
- 27.
The use of iconic signs in language is quite limited to phonesthemes and ideophones (Dingemanse et al. 2016). However, their contribution to semantics in modern languages is obvious perhaps only through a few onomatopoeic words. Iconicity seems to constitute the vestige of some earlier stage in the evolution of languages, supplanted by conventiolization as language develops the capacity to reflect the relations between multiple abstract concepts, which become more important than the relations between the sound of a word and its meaning (Ahlner and Zlatev 2010). The share of iconicity in languages of peoples that maintain preindustrial lifestyle and animistic ideology is rather higher than in languages of industrial countries and urban societies (Nuckolls 2004).).
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Nikolsky, A. (2020). Emergence of the Distinction Between “Verbal” and “Musical” in Early Childhood Development. In: Masataka, N. (eds) The Origins of Language Revisited. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4250-3_7
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