Skip to main content

The Effect of Fillers on the Tribological Properties of Composites

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Tribological Applications of Composite Materials

Abstract

Recent advances in the sphere of materials engineering have seen the advent of a new generation of composite materials that have become a replacement for the traditional materials used in different industries over the years. The proven potential of composite technology to deliver in line with critical global trends in the aerospace, automobile, and marine industries has placed it on top of other materials in the market. As composite materials can be lightweight and durable, they score very highly on efficiency measures with desired engineering properties required. A careful and wise combination of matrices, reinforcements, and additives can be tailored for specific applications of the end product. Traditionally, most of the fillers were considered as additives, limiting their contribution to a composite only on reducing their cost. However, the diversity of applications and a broad spectrum of their usage has led to high demand for incorporating fillers in composite technology. In this perspective, the objective of this chapter is to explore the works of literature for providing information about the fillers concerning processing, functions, mechanical and tribological characteristics, environmental impact. Moreover, the recent advances and challenges in employing different types of fillers in different classes of composites have been briefly discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Aderikha VN, Shapovalov VA (2010) Effect of filler surface properties on structure, mechanical and tribological behavior of PTFE-carbon black composites. Wear 268(11–12):1455–1464

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arvinda Pandian CK, Siddhi Jailani H (2018) Investigation of viscoelastic attributes and vibrational characteristics of natural fabrics-incorporated hybrid laminate beams. Polym Bull 75(5):1997–2014

    Google Scholar 

  • Arvinda Pandian CK, Siddhi Jailani H (2019) Dynamic and vibrational characterization of natural fabrics incorporated hybrid composites using industrial waste silica fumes. Int J Polym Anal Charact 24(8):721–730

    Google Scholar 

  • Arvinda Pandian CK, Siddhi Jailani H, Rajadurai A (2017) Natural fabric sandwich laminate composites: development and investigation. Bull Mater Sci 40(1):139–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Asadi P, Givi MKB, Abrinia K, Taherishargh M, Salekrostam R (2011) Effects of SiC particle size and process parameters on the microstructure and hardness of AZ91/SiC composite layer fabricated by FSP. J Mater Eng Perform 20(9):1554–1562

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ashik KP, Sharma RS, Raghavendra N (2017) Effect of filler on mechanical properties of natural fiber reinforced composites. Asian J Chem 29(8):1697–1701

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ashworth S, Rongong J, Wilson P, Meredith J (2016) Mechanical and damping properties of resin transfer moulded jute-carbon hybrid composites. Compos Part B Eng 105:60–66

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aveen KP, Bhajantri V, D’Souza R, Londe NV, Jambagi S (2019) Experimental analysis on effect of various fillers on mechanical properties of glass fiber reinforced polymer composites. AIP Conf Proc 2057(January)

    Google Scholar 

  • Bahadur S, Gong D (1992) The role of copper compounds as fillers in the transfer and wear behavior of polyetheretherketone. Wear 154(1):151–165

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bahadur S, Polineni VK (1996) Tribological studies of glass fabric-reinforced polyamide composites filled with CuO and PTFE. Wear 200(1–2):95–104

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bajwa SG, Bajwa DS, Holt G, Coffelt T, Nakayama F (2011) Properties of thermoplastic composites with cotton and guayule biomass residues as fiber fillers. Ind Crops Prod 33(3):747–755

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bakhsheshi-Rad HR, Hamzah E, Ismail AF, Daroonparvar M, Yajid MAM, Medraj M (2016) Preparation and characterization of NiCrAlY/nano-YSZ/PCL composite coatings obtained by combination of atmospheric plasma spraying and dip coating on Mg-Ca alloy. J Alloys Compd 658:440–452

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bhushan B (2000) Modern tribology handbook: volume one: principles of tribology. Mod Tribol Handb Vol One Princ Tribol 1–1697

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchet TA (2012) Friction and wear of polymer materials. Handb Lubr Tribol II Theory Des Second Ed 34-1–34-14

    Google Scholar 

  • Bobby S, Samad MA (2017) Enhancement of tribological performance of epoxy bulk composites and composite coatings using micro/nano fillers: a review. Polym Adv Technol 28(6):633–644

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cai Y, Yin X, Fan S, Zhang L, Cheng L (2013) Tribological behavior of three-dimensional needled ceramic modified carbon/carbon composites in seawater conditions. Compos Sci Technol 87:50–57

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cai P, Li Z, Wang T, Wang Q (2015) Effect of aspect ratios of aramid fiber on mechanical and tribological behaviors of friction materials. Tribol Int 92:109–116

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chang L, Zhang Z, Ye L, Friedrich K (2007) Tribological properties of high temperature resistant polymer composites with fine particles. Tribol Int 40(7):1170–1178

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen K, Jia B, Liu X (2017) Comparison and analysis dissimilar joint strength of pultrusion GFRP composites. DEStech Trans Eng Technol Res (icaenm):184–191

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiellini E, Solaro R (1996) Biodegradable polymeric materials. Adv Mater 8(4):305–313

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cisneros-López EO, González-López ME, Pérez-Fonseca AA, González-Núñez R, Rodrigue D, Robledo-Ortíz JR (2017) Effect of fiber content and surface treatment on the mechanical properties of natural fiber composites produced by rotomolding. Compos Interfaces 24(1):35–53

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ciupan Eet al (2017) Characterization of a thermoforming composite material made from hemp fibers and polypropylene. MATEC Web Conf 137

    Google Scholar 

  • Dhawan V, Singh S, Singh I (2013) Effect of natural fillers on mechanical properties of GFRP composites. J Compos 2013:1–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Divya GS, Suresha B (2018) Role of metallic nanofillers on mechanical and tribological behaviour of carbon fabric reinforced epoxy composites. Mater Sci Appl 9(9):740–750

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dorri Moghadam A, Omrani E, Menezes PL, Rohatgi PK (2015) Mechanical and tribological properties of self-lubricating metal matrix nanocomposites reinforced by carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene—a review. Compos Part B Eng 77:402–420

    Google Scholar 

  • Erdemir A (2005) Review of engineered tribological interfaces for improved boundary lubrication. Tribol Int 38(3):249–256

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gbadeyan OJ, Kanny K, Pandurangan MT (2018) Tribological, mechanical, and microstructural of multiwalled carbon nanotubes/short carbon fiber epoxy composites. J Tribol 140(2)

    Google Scholar 

  • Graupner N, Ziegmann G, Wilde F, Beckmann F, Müssig J (2016) Procedural influences on compression and injection moulded cellulose fibre-reinforced polylactide (PLA) composites: Influence of fibre loading, fibre length, fibre orientation and voids. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 81(October 2015):158–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Grinev VG et al (2018) The effect of filler type on the mechanical properties of composite materials based on ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene. Polym Sci Ser D 11(2):202–208

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holmberg K, Erdemir A (2017) Influence of tribology on global energy consumption, costs and emissions. Friction 5(3):263–284

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jang H, Ko K, Kim SJ, Basch RH, Fash JW (2004) The effect of metal fibers on the friction performance of automotive brake friction materials. Wear 256(3–4):406–414

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jost HP (2006) Tribology: how a word was coined 40 years ago. Tribol Lubr Technol 62(3):24–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Kane SN, Mishra A, Dutta AK (2016) Preface: international conference on recent trends in physics (ICRTP 2016). J Phys Conf Ser 755(1)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kano Y, Akiyama S (1996) Estimation of surface tension and surface segregation of poly(ethyl acrylate)/poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoro acetone) blends. Polymer (Guildf) 37(20):4497–4503

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klaas NV, Marcus K, Kellock C (2005) The tribological behaviour of glass filled polytetrafluoroethylene. Tribol Int 38(9, SPEC. ISS.):824–833

    Google Scholar 

  • Komarov AI, Komarova VI, Shipko AA, Ovchinnikov VV, Kovaleva SA (2013) Effect of phase composition of nanostructured refractory modifier on structure and tribological behavior of AK12M2MgN alloy. J Frict Wear 34(5):329–338

    Google Scholar 

  • Košíková B, Gregorová A, Osvald A, Krajčovičová J (2007) Role of lignin filler in stabilization of natural rubber–based composites. J Appl Polym Sci 103(2):1226–1231

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar M, Bijwe J (2010) Role of different metallic fillers in non-asbestos organic (NAO) friction composites for controlling sensitivity of coefficient of friction to load and speed. Tribol Int 43(5–6):965–974

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar P, Srivastava VK (2016) A review on wear and friction performance of carbon-carbon composites at high temperature. Int J Appl Ceram Technol 13(4):702–710

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lai D, Wei Y, Zou L, Xu Y, Lu H (2015) Wet spinning of PVA composite fibers with a large fraction of multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Prog Nat Sci Mater Int 25(5):445–452

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Latha PS, Rao MV (2018) Investigation into effect of ceramic fillers on mechanical and tribological properties of bamboo-glass hybrid fiber reinforced polymer composites. Silicon 10(4):1543–1550

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li F, ao Hu K, lin Li J, yuan Zhao B (2001) The friction and wear characteristics of nanometer ZnO filled polytetrafluoroethylene. Wear 249(10–11):877–882

    Google Scholar 

  • Li Z, Okamoto K, Ohki Y, Tanaka T (2011) The role of nano and micro particles on partial discharge and breakdown strength in epoxy composites. IEEE Trans Dielectr Electr Insul 18(3):675–681

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li Z, Gao Y, Moon KS, Yao Y, Tannenbaum A, Wong CP (2012) Automatic quantification of filler dispersion in polymer composites. Polymer (Guildf) 53(7):1571–1580

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li JF, Chen B, Shi Q, Li C, Chu Y, Li C (2017) Tribological properties of novel Cu/NbSe2 composites reinforced with reduced graphene oxide filler. Chalcogenide Lett 14(11):499–510

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li Q, Imanishi N, Takeda Y, Hirano A, Yamamoto O (2002) PEO-based composite lithium polymer electrolyte, PEO-BaTiO 3-Li (C 2 F 5 SO 2) 2 N. Ionics 8(1–2):79–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Li Y, Wang S, Wang Q (2017) Enhancement of tribological properties of polymer composites reinforced by functionalized graphene. Compos Part B Eng 120:83–91

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Llorente J, Ramírez C, Belmonte M (2019) High graphene fillers content for improving the tribological performance of silicon nitride-based ceramics. Wear 430–431(April):183–190

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matuana LM, Park CB, Balatinecz JJ (1998) Cell morphology and property relationships of microcellular foamed pvc/wood-fiber composites. Polym Eng Sci 38(11):1862–1872

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mohanty A, Srivastava VK, Sastry PU (2014) Investigation of mechanical properties of alumina nanoparticle-loaded hybrid glass/carbon-fiber-reinforced epoxy composites. J Appl Polym Sci 131(1):1–7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muraliraja R, Arunachalam R, Al-fori I, Al-maharbi M, Piya S (2018) Development of alumina reinforced aluminum metal matrix composite with enhanced compressive strength through squeeze casting process. Proc IMechE Part L J Mater Des Appl 1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Musanje L, Ferracane JL, Ferracane LL (2006) Effects of resin formulation and nanofiller surface treatment on in vitro wear of experimental hybrid resin composite. J Biomed Mater Res Part B Appl Biomater 77(1):120–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Nabinejad O, Liew WYH, Debnath S, Rahman ME, Cao C, Davies IJ (2019) Tribological behavior of unsaturated polyester hybrid composites containing wood flour and carbon nanotubes. SN Appl Sci 1(7):1–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naidu PP, Raghavendra G, Ojha S, Paplal B (2019) Effect of g-C3N4 nanofiller as filler on mechanical properties of multidirectional glass fiber epoxy hybrid composites. J Appl Polym Sci 48413(Figure 2):1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Nassar MMA, Arunachalam R, Alzebdeh KI (2017) Machinability of natural fiber reinforced composites: a review. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 88(9–12):2985–3004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nirmal U, Hashim J, Lau STW (2011) Testing methods in tribology: a review. Reg Tribol Conf (RTC), Langkawi, Malaysia 6(3):221–229

    Google Scholar 

  • Ojha S, Acharya SK, Gujjala R (2014) Characterization and wear behavior of carbon black filled polymer composites. Procedia Mater Sci 6(Icmpc):468–475

    Google Scholar 

  • Omrani E, Moghadam AD, Menezes PL, Rohatgi PK (2016) Influences of graphite reinforcement on the tribological properties of self-lubricating aluminum matrix composites for green tribology, sustainability, and energy efficiency—a review. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 83(1–4):325–346

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palanikumar K, AshokGandhi R, Raghunath BK, Jayaseelan V (2019) Role of calcium carbonate(CaCO3) in improving wear resistance of polypropylene(PP) components used in automobiles. Mater Today Proc 16:1363–1371

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palutkiewicz P, Trzaskalska M, Bociąga E (2019) The influence of blowing agent addition, talc filler content, and injection velocity on selected properties, surface state, and structure of polypropylene injection molded parts. Cell Polym 35(4):159–192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pandian A, Jailani S (2019) Development and investigation of jute/linen fibre reinforced polymer composite. SAE Tech Pap (October)

    Google Scholar 

  • Qiao HB, Guo Q, Tian AG, Pan GL, Xu LB (2007) A study on friction and wear characteristics of nanometer Al2O3/PEEK composites under the dry sliding condition. Tribol Int 40(1):105–110

    Google Scholar 

  • Qu X, Zhang L, Ding H, Liu G (2004) The effect of steel fiber orientation on frictional properties of asbestos-free friction materials. Polym Compos 25(1):94–101

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raja DBP, Retnam BSJ (2019) Effect of short fibre orientation on the mechanical characterization of a composite material-hybrid fibre reinforced polymer matrix. Bull Mater Sci 42(3)

    Google Scholar 

  • Ravi Kumar BN, Suresha B, Venkataramareddy M (2009) Effect of particulate fillers on mechanical and abrasive wear behaviour of polyamide 66/polypropylene nanocomposites. Mater Des 30(9):3852–3858

    Google Scholar 

  • Saba N, Tahir PM, Jawaid M (2014) A review on potentiality of nano filler/natural fiber filled polymer hybrid composites. Polymers (Basel) 6(8):2247–2273

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sabeel Ahmed K, Khalid SS, Mallinatha V, Amith Kumar SJ (2012) Dry sliding wear behavior of SiC/Al2O3 filled jute/epoxy composites. Mater Des 36:306–315

    Google Scholar 

  • Şahin Y (2018) Dry wear and metallographic study of PTFE polymer composites. Mech Compos Mater 54(3):403–414

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakka MM, Antar Z, Elleuch K, Feller JF (2017) Tribological response of an epoxy matrix filled with graphite and/or carbon nanotubes. Friction 5(2):171–182

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salasinska K, Barczewski M, Górny R, Kloziński A (2018) Evaluation of highly filled epoxy composites modified with walnut shell waste filler. Polym Bull 75(6):2511–2528

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sam-Daliri O, Faller LM, Farahani M, Roshanghias A, Araee A, Baniassadi M, ... Zangl H (2019) Impedance analysis for condition monitoring of single lap CNT-epoxy adhesive joint. Int J Adhes and Adhes 88:59–65

    Google Scholar 

  • Senbet D (2008) Measuring the impact and international transmission of monetary policy: a factor-augmented vector autoregressive (favar) approach. Eur J Econ Financ Adm Sci 7(13):121–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Shi Y, Feng X, Wang H, Lu X (2008) The effect of surface modification on the friction and wear behavior of carbon nanofiber-filled PTFE composites. Wear 264(11–12):934–939

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shibata K, Yamaguchi T, Urabe T, Hokkirigawa K (2012) Experimental study on microscopic wear mechanism of copper/carbon/rice bran ceramics composites. Wear 294–295:270–276

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shibata K, Yamaguchi T, Hokkirigawa K (2014) Tribological behavior of polyamide 66/rice bran ceramics and polyamide 66/glass bead composites. Wear 317(1–2):1–7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sideridis E, Venetis J, Kyriazi E, Kytopoulos V (2017) Influence of moisture absorption on the flexural properties of composites made of epoxy resin reinforced with low-content iron particles. Bull Mater Sci 40(4):805–817

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh RA, Jayalakshmi S, Gupta M (2016) Indian J Adv Chem Sci Wear Frict Adv Compos (Table 1):165–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Srirangan AK, Paulraj S (2016) Multi-response optimization of process parameters for TIG welding of Incoloy 800HT by Taguchi grey relational analysis. Eng Sci Technol Int J 19(2):811–817

    Google Scholar 

  • Sudheer M, Prabhu R, Raju K, Bhat T (2014) Effect of filler content on the performance of epoxy/PTW composites. Adv Mater Sci Eng (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  • Suresha B, Chandramohan G, Prakash JN, Balusamy V, Sankaranarayanasamy K (2006) The role of fillers on friction and slide wear characteristics in glass-epoxy composite systems. J Miner Mater Charact Eng 5(1):87–101

    Google Scholar 

  • Suresha B, Ramesh BN, Subbaya KM, Ravi Kumar BN, Chandramohan G (2010) Influence of graphite filler on two-body abrasive wear behaviour of carbon fabric reinforced epoxy composites. Mater Des 31(4):1833–1841

    Google Scholar 

  • Swain PTR, Biswas S (2017) Effect of moisture absorption on the mechanical properties of ceramic filled Jute/Epoxy hybrid composites. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol 178, 012010

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang H et al (2019) Correlation between failure and local material property in chopped carbon fiber chip-reinforced sheet molding compound composites under tensile load. Polym Compos 40(S2):E962–E974

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tzanakis I, Hadfield M, Thomas B, Noya SM, Henshaw I, Austen S (2012) Future perspectives on sustainable tribology. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 16(6):4126–4140

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urquhart AW (1991) Novel reinforced ceramics and metals: a review of Lanxide’s composite technologies. Mater Sci Eng: A 144:75–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasilev AP et al (2019) Mechanical and tribological properties of polytetrafluoroethylene composites with carbon fiber and layered silicate fillers. Molecules 24(2)

    Google Scholar 

  • Vinayagamoorthy R (2018) Friction and wear characteristics of fibre-reinforced plastic composites. J Thermoplast Compos Mater

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang Q, Xue Q, Liu H, Shen W, Xu J (1996) The effect of particle size of nanometer ZrO2 on the tribological behaviour of PEEK. Wear 198(1–2):216–219

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang QH, Xue QJ, Liu WM, Chen JM (2000) Effect of nanometer SiC filler on the tribological behavior of PEEK under distilled water lubrication. J Appl Polym Sci 78(3):609–614

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson S, Alpas AT (1996) Effect of temperature on the sliding wear performance of Al alloys and Al matrix composites. Wear 196(1–2):270–278

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wulfsberg J, Herrmann A, Ziegmann G, Lonsdorfer G, Stöß N, Fette M (2014) Combination of carbon fibre sheet moulding compound and prepreg compression moulding in aerospace industry. Procedia Eng 81(October):1601–1607

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wypych G (2016) Fillers in different processing methods. Handb Fill 793–821

    Google Scholar 

  • Wypych G (2016) Fillers in different products. In: Handbook of fillers, p 851

    Google Scholar 

  • Xian J, Xiaomei L (2004) Friction and wear characteristics of polymer-matrix friction materials reinforced by brass fibers. J Mater Eng Perform 13(5):642–646

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang Z, Peng H, Wang W, Liu T (2010) Crystallization behavior of poly(ε-caprolactone)/layered double hydroxide nanocomposites. J Appl Polym Sci 116(5):2658–2667

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yoo HM, Kwon DJ, Park JM, Yum SH, Lee W Il (2017) Mechanical properties of norbornene-based silane treated glass fiber reinforced polydicyclopentadiene composites manufactured by the S-RIM process. E-Polymers 17(2):159–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Z, Breidt C, Chang L, Haupert F, Friedrich K (2004) Enhancement of the wear resistance of epoxy: Short carbon fibre, graphite, ptfe and nano-tio2. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 35(12):1385–1392

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao G, Wang T, Wang Q (2012) Studies on wettability, mechanical and tribological properties of the polyurethane composites filled with talc. Appl Surf Sci 258(8):3557–3564

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to R. Muraliraja .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Muraliraja, R., Tamilarasan, T.R., Udayakumar, S., Arvinda Pandian, C.K. (2021). The Effect of Fillers on the Tribological Properties of Composites. In: Hameed Sultan, M.T., Mohd Jamir, M.R., Abdul Majid, M.S., Azmi, A.I., Saba, N. (eds) Tribological Applications of Composite Materials. Composites Science and Technology . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9635-3_9

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics