Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Theoretical and practical criteria for the selection of ecosystem monitoring plots in Swiss forests

  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A great deal of attention has been paid to the selection of nature reserves. These are important from a conservation viewpoint but, for long-term evaluations, it is important to monitor ecosystems. The need for long-term monitoring plots has been recognized for some time in forest ecology. Of the natural ecosystems, forests are some of the most difficult to monitor because of the time-scales involved in the life-spans of the dominant organisms (100 → 1000 years). The selection of long-term forest ecosystem monitoring plots is a critical process involving decisions that need to remain valid for many years. Traditional sampling theory suggests that some form of systematic or random sampling may be appropriate, but this is usually inappropriate for the selection of ecosystem monitoring plots. Instead, the selection of plots more closely resembles some of the procedures that are used in the selection of nature reserves. In Switzerland, a monitoring programme has been established which uses a number of criteria for the selection of sites. These include site homogeneity, the abundance and sensitivity of the plant communities to change and the presence of pre-existing data series or monitoring equipment. In addition, the human factor is incorporated by selecting sites from throughout the country, with the willingness of the local forest managers to help with the project being an important factor influencing the final choice of plots. In contrast to most inventories, statistical representativeness is not a requirement for the programme, as the plots are treated as a series of case studies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrell, D. B. and Jackson, M. T.: 1977, ‘A decade of Change in an Old-growth Beech-maple Forest in Indiana’, American Midland Naturalist 98, 22–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Addicott, J. F., Aho, J. M., Antolin, M. F., Padilla, D. K., Richardson, J. S. and Soluk, D. A.: 1987, ‘Ecological Neighbourhoods: Scaling Environmental Patterns’ Oikos 49, 340–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, T. F. H. and Starr, T. B.: 1982, Hierarchy: Perspectives for Ecological Complexity, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrewartha, H. G. and Birch, L. C.: 1954, The Distribution and Abundance of Animals, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anon.: 1993, Mannual for Integrated Monitoring. Programme phase 1993–1996, Environmental report 5. Environment Data Centre, National Board of Waters and the Environment, Helsinki.

  • Anon.: 1994, Manual on Methods and Criteria for Harmonized Sampling, Assessment, Monitoring and Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Forests. Programme Coordinating Centre West, Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products, Hamburg.

  • Anselin, A., Meire, P. M. and Anselin, L.: 1989, ‘Multicriteria Techniques in Ecological Evaluation; An Example Using the Analytical Hierarchy Process’, Biological Conservation 49, 215–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antonovics, J. and Levin, D. A.: 1980, ‘The Ecological and Genetic Consequences of Density-dependent Regulation in Plants’, Annual Reviews of Ecology and Systematics 11, 411–452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arrhenius, O.: 1921, ‘Species and Area’, Journal of Ecology 9, 95–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashton, P. S.: 1969, ‘Speciation Among Tropical Forest Trees: Some Deductions in the Light of Recent Evidence’, Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society 1, 155–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atmar, W. and Patterson, B. D.: 1993, ‘The Measure of Order and Disorder in the Distribution of Species in Fragmented Habitat’, Oecologia 96, 373–382.

    Google Scholar 

  • Avery, C. C., Larsen, F. R. and Shubert, G. H.: 1978, Fifty Years of Virgin Stand Development in Southwestern Ponderosa Pine, USDA Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, General Technical Report RM22.

  • Bailey, R. G.: 1991, ‘Design of Ecological Networks for Monitoring Global Change’, Environmental Conservation 18, 173–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakuzis, E. V. and Hansen, H. L.: 1960, ‘Some Relationships Between Vegetational Indication and Broad Soil Groups in Minnesota Forest Communities’, Minnesota Forestry Notes 90.

  • Bedward, M., Pressey, R. L. and Nicholls, A. O.: 1991, ‘Scores and Score classes for Evaluating Criteria: A Comparison Based on the Cost of Reserving all Natural Features’, Biological Conservation 56, 281–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belbin, L.: 1993, ‘Environmental Representativeness: Regional Partitioning and Reserve Selection’, Biological Conservation 66, 223–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, G., Lechowicz, M. J., Appenzeller, A., Chandler, M., DeBlois, E., Jackson, L., Mackenzie, B., Preziosi, R., Schallenberg, M. and Tinker, N.: 1993, ‘The Spatial Structure of the Physical Environment’, Oecologia 96, 114–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bormann, F. H.: 1953, ‘The Statistical Efficiency of Sample Plot Size and Shape in Forest Ecology’, Ecology 34, 474–487.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bormann, F. H. and Likens, G. E.: 1979, Pattern and Process in a Forested Ecosystem, Springer Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourgeron, P., Humphries, H. C., de Velice, R. L. and Jensen, M. E.: 1993, ‘Ecological theory in relation to landscape evaluation and ecosystem characterization’, in: Jensen, M. E. and Bourgeron, P. (Eds.), Eastside Forest Ecosystem Health Assessment. Volume II. Ecosystem management: Principles and Application, US Department of Agriculture, National Forest System, Forest Service Research, Washington D.C., pp. 65–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brenner, W.: 1921, ‘Växtgeografiska studier i Barösund skärgård’, Acta Societas Fauna Flora Fennica 49, 1–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burley, F. W.: 1988, ‘Monitoring Biological Diversity for Setting Conservation Priorities’, in: Wilson, E. O. (Ed.), Biodiversity, National Academy Press, Washington DC, pp. 227–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burrows, C. J.: 1990, Processes of Vegetation Change, Unwin and Hyman, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Busing, R. T. and White, P. S.: 1993, ‘Effects of Area on Old-growth Forest Attributes: Implications for the Equilibrium Landscape Concept’, Landscape Ecology 8, 119–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cajander, V.: 1909, ‘Über Waldtypen’, Acta Forestalia Fennica 1, 1–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, J., Franklin, J. F. and Spies, T. A.: 1993, ‘Contrasting Microclimates Among Clearcut, Edge, and Interior of Old Growth Douglas Fir Forest’, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 63, 219–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coile, T. S.: 1935, ‘Relation of Site Index for Shortleaf Pine to Certain Physical Properties of the Soil’, Journal of Forestry 33, 726–730.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cullinan, V. I. and Thomas, J. M.: 1992, ‘A Comparison of Quantitative Methods for Examining Landscape Pattern and Scale’, Landscape Ecology 7, 211–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Czárán, T. and Bartha, S.: 1992, ‘Spatiotemporal Dynamic Models of Plant Populations and Communities’, Trends in Ecology and Evolution 7, 38–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daubenmire, R. F.: 1959, Plants and Environment, John Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeAngelis, D. L. and Waterhouse, J. C. (1987). ‘Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Concepts in Ecological Models’, Ecological Monographs 57, 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeVelice, R. L., DeVelice, J. W. and Park, G. N.: 1988, ‘Gradient Analysis in Nature Reserve Design: A New Zealand Example’, Conservation Biology 2, 206–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, J. M.: 1975, ‘The Island Dilemma: Lessons of Modern Biogeographic Studies for the Design of Natural Reserves’, Biological Conservation 7, 129–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, J. M. and May, R. M.: 1976, ‘Island Biogeography and the Design of Natural Reserves’, in: R. M. May, (Ed.) Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 163–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dony, J. G. and Denholm, I.: 1985, ‘Some Quantitative Methods of Assessing the Conservation Value of Ecologically Similar Sites’, Journal of Applied Ecology 22, 229–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellenberg, H. and Klötzli, F.: 1972, ‘Waldgesellschaften und Waldstandorte der Schweiz’, Mitteilungen der Schweizerisches Anstalt für forstliches Versuchswesen 48, 587–930.

    Google Scholar 

  • Esseen, P.-A.: 1994, ‘Three Mortality Patterns After Experimental Fragmentation of an Old-Growth Conifer Forest’, Biological Conservation 68, 19–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahrig, L. and Paloheimo, J.: 1988, ‘Effect of Spatial Arrangement of Habitat Patches on Local Population Size’, Ecology 69, 468–475.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faith, D. P. and Norris, R. H.: 1989, ‘Correlation of Environmental Variables with Patterns of Distribution and Abundance of Common and Rare Freshwater Macroinvertebrates’, Biological Conservation 50, 77–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flückiger, W. and Braun, S.: 1994, Waldschaden-Bericht. Untersuchungen in Beobachtungsflächen 1984–1993, Institut für Angewandte Pflanzenbiologie, Schönenbuch.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forman, R. T. T.: 1981, ‘Interactions Among Landscape Elements: A Core of Landscape Ecology’, in: Tjallingii, S. P. and de Veer, A. A. (Eds.) Perspectives in Landscape Ecology, Centre for Agricultural Production and Documentation, Wageningen, pp. 35–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forman, R. T. T. and Godron, M.: 1986, Landscape Ecology, John Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foster, D. R. (1988). ‘Species and Stand Response to Catastrophic Wind in Central New England, U.S.A.’, Journal of Ecology 76, 135–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gersmehl, P., Napton, D. and Luther, J.: 1982, ‘The Spatial Transferability of Resource Interpretations’, in: Proc. National In-Place Resource Inventories Workshop (9–14 August 1981, University of Maine, Orono, Maine), Society of American Foresters, Washington DC, pp. 402–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, L. E.: 1980, ‘The Equilibrium Theory of Island Biogeography: Fact or Fiction?’, Journal of Biogeography 7, 209–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleason, H. A.: 1922, ‘On the Relation between Species and Area’, Ecology 3, 158–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallbäcken, L. and Tamm, C. O.: 1986, ‘Changes in Soil Acidity from 1927 to 1982–1984 in a Forest Area of South-west Sweden’, Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 1, 219–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanski, I.: 1994, ‘A Practical Model of Metapopulation Dynamics’ Journal of Animal Ecology 63, 151–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hasson, L. and Angelstam, P.: 1991, ‘Landscape Ecology as a Theoretical Basis for Nature Conservation’, Landscape Ecology 5, 191–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, L. D.: 1988, ‘Edge Effects and the Conservation of Biotic Diversity’, Conservation Biology 2, 330–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, H. J., Milligan, M. S. and Fewless, G. A.: 1983, ‘Diversity: Quantification and Ecological Evaluation in Freshwater Marshes’, Biological Conservation 27, 99–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helliwell, D. R.: 1976, ‘The Effects of Size and Isolation on the Conservation Value of Wooded Sites in Britain’, Journal of Biogeography 3, 407–416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, B. B. and Brydges, T. G.: 1994, ‘A Strategy for Integrated Monitoring’, Environmental Management 18, 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Higgs, A. J. and Usher, M. B.: 1980, ‘Should Nature Reserves be Large or Small?’, Nature 285, 568–569.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hough, A. F.: 1965, ‘A twenty-year Record of Understory Vegetational Charge in a Virgin Pennsylvania Forest’, Ecology 46, 370–373.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inghe, O. and Tamm, C. O.: 1985, ‘Survival and Flowering of Perennial Herbs. IV. The behaviour of Hepatica nobilis and Sanicula europaea on Permanent Plots During 1943–1981’, Oikos 45, 400–420.

    Google Scholar 

  • Innes, J. L.: 1992, ‘Stress Combinations in Forests’, in: Schneider, T. (Ed.) Acidification Research: Evaluation and Policy Application, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 87–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Innes, J. L.: 1994, ‘Design of an Intensive Monitoring System for Swiss Forests’, in: Beniston, M. (Ed.) Mountain Environments in Changing Climates, Routledge, London, pp. 281–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janzen, D. H.: 1983, ‘No Park is an Island: Increase in Interference From Outside as Park Size Decreases’, Oikos 42, 402–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, E. W.: 1945, ‘The Structure and Reproduction of the Virgin Forest of the North Temperate Zone’, New Phytologist 44, 130–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, R. K., Pierpoint, G., Wickware, G. M., Jeglum, J. K., Arnup, R. W. and Bowles, J. M.: 1983, Field Guide to Forest Ecosystem Classification for the Clay Belt, Site Region 3e. Maple, Ontario.

  • Kadmon, R. and Pulliam, H. R.: 1993, ‘Island Biogeography: Effect of Geographical Isolation on Species Composition’, Ecology 74, 977–981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller, W.: 1994a, Standörtliche Inhomogenität von ertragskundlichen Versuchsflächen — eine Ursache von Fehlschlüssen? Deutscher Verband Forstlicher Forschungsanstalten, Sektion Ertragskunde. Jahrestahung vom 16–18 May 1994, pp. 153–159.

  • Keller, W.: 1994b, ‘Standörtliche Inhomogenität von ertragskundlichen Versuchsflächen — eine Ursache von Fehlschlüssen?’ Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Forstwesen 145, 1031–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirkpatrick, J. B.: 1983, ‘An Iterative Method for Establishing Priorities for the Selection of Nature Reserves: An Example from Tasmania’, Biological Conservation 25, 127–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kittredge, J.: 1948, Forest Influences, McGraw-Hill, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kräuchi, N.: 1994, ‘Modelling Forest Succession as Influenced by a Changing Environment’, Mitteilungen der Eidgenössischen Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft 69, 145–271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, N., Amiet, R. and Hufschmid, N.: 1987, ‘Veränderungen in der Waldvegetation der Schweiz infolge Nährstoffanreicherungen aus der Atmosphäre’, Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung 158, 77–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kull, P.: 1994, ‘Vegetationsaufnahmen’, in: Sanasilva-Waldzustandbericht 1993. Der Zustand des Schweizer Waldes, Berichte der Eidgenössischen Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft 339, 40–41.

  • Lens, L. and Dhondt, A. A.: 1994, ‘Effects of Habitat Fragmentation in the Timing of Crested Tit Parus cristatus Natal Dispersal’, Ibis 136, 147–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levins, R.: 1969, ‘Some Demographic and Genetic Consequences of Environmental Heterogeneity for Biological Control’, Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America 15, 237–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacArthur, R. H.: 1971, ‘Patterns of Terrestrial Bird Communities’, Farner, D. S. and King, J. R. (Eds.) Academic Press, New York, pp. 189–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacArthur, R. H. and Wilson, E. O.: 1963, ‘An Equilibrium Theory of Insular Zoogeography,’ Evolution 17, 373–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacArthur, R. H. and Wilson, E. O.: 1967, The Theory of Island Biogeography, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie, N. L., Belbin, L., Margules, C. R. and Keighery, G. J.: 1989, ‘Selecting Representative Reserves Systems in Remote Areas: A Case Study in the Nullarbor Region, Australia’, Biological Conservation 50, 239–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Maarel, E.: 1993, ‘Some Remarks on Disturbance and its Relations to Diversity and Stability’, Journal of Vegetation Science 4, 733–736.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mack, R. N. and Harper, J. L.: 1977, ‘Interference in Dune Annuals: Spatial Pattern and Neighbourhood Effects’, Journal of Ecology 65, 345–363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manly, B., McDonald, L. and Thomas, D.: 1993, Resource Selection by Animals. Statistical Design and Analysis for Field Studies, Chapman and Hall, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Margules, C. R., Nicholls, A. O. and Pressey, R. L.: 1988, ‘Selecting Networks of Reserves to Maximize Biological Diversity’, Biological Conservation 43, 63–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Margules, C. and Usher, M. B.: 1981, ‘Criteria Used in Assessing Wildlife Conservation Potential: A Review’, Biological Conservation 21, 79–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, B. D. and Ghersa, C.: 1992, ‘The Influence of Weed Seed Dispersion Versus the Effect of Competition on Crop Yield’, Weed Technology 6, 196–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • May, R. M.: 1972, ‘Will a Large Complex System be Stable?’, Nature 238, 413–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messer, J. J., Linthurst, R. A. and Overton, W. S.: 1991, ‘An EPA Program for Monitoring Ecological Status and Trends’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 17, 67–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naveh, Z. and Liebemann, A.: 1993, Landscape Ecology, Springer Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nisbet, R. M. and Gurney, W. S. C.: 1982, Modelling Populations, John Wiley and Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogle, C. C.: 1981, ‘The Ranking of Wildlife Habitats’, New Zealand Journal of Ecology 4, 115–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Neill, R. V., DeAngelis, D. L., Waide, J. B. and Allen, T. F. H.: 1986, A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems, Monographs in Population Biology 23, Princeton University Press, Princeton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, C. D., Knapp, W. H. and Everett, R.: 1993, ‘A System for Implementing Ecosystem Management’, in: Jensen, M. E. and Bourgeron, P. S. (Eds.) Eastside Forest Ecosystem Health Assessment. Vol. II. Ecosystem Management: Principles and Applications. U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Forest System, Forest Service Research, pp. 377–388.

  • Opdam, P.: 1991, ‘Metapopulation Theory and Habitat Fragmentation: A Review of Holarctic Breeding Bird Studies’, Landscape Ecology 5, 93–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paine, R. T.: 1966, ‘Food Web Complexity and Species Diversity’, American Naturalist 100, 65–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peet, R. K.: 1984, ‘Twenty-six Years of Change in a Pinus strobus — Acer saccharum Forest, Lake Itasca, Minnesota, Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 111, 61–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, J. N. and Gonzalez-Andujar, J. L.: 1993, ‘Dispersal in a Metapopulation Neighbourhood Model of an Annual Plant with a Seedbank’, Journal of Ecology 81, 453–463.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterken, G. F.: 1993, ‘Long-term Studies in Forest Reserves, in: Broekmeywer, M. E. A., Vos, W. and Koop, H. Pudoc, (Eds.) European Forest Reserves, Wageningen, pp. 35–48.

  • Peterken, G. F. and Backmeroff, C. E.: 1988, Long-term Monitoring in Unmanaged Woodland Nature Reserves, Research and Survey in Nature Conservation 9, Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterken, G. F. and Jones, E. W.: 1987, ‘Forty Years of Change in Lady Park Wood: The Old-Growth Stands’, Journal of Ecology 75, 477–512.

    Google Scholar 

  • Preston, F. W.: 1962, ‘The Canonical Distribution of Commonness and Rarity’, Ecology 43, 185–215 and 410–432.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ranney, J. W., Bruner, M. C. and Levenson, J. B.: 1981, ‘The Importance of Edge in the Dynamics and Structure of Forest Islands’, in: Burgess, R. L. and Sharp, D. M. (Eds.) Forest Island Dynamics in Man-Dominated Landscapes, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 677–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rihm, B.: 1994, Critical Loads of Acidity for Forest Soils and Alpine Lakes. Steady State Mass Balance Method, Federal Office of Environment, Forests and Landscape, Switzerland, Environmental Series no. 234. BUWAL, Bern.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlaepfer, R., Innes, J. L., Stewart, R. and Langevin, F.: 1994, ‘Workshop on Environmental Criterial/Indicators for the Sustainable Development of Boreal and Temperate Forests’, in: Seminar of Experts on Sustainable Development of Boreal and Temperate Forests, September 27 to October 1 1993, Montreal, Canada. Technical Report, Annex 1. Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, pp. 13–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmider, P., Küper, M., Tschander, B. and Käser, B.: 1993, Die Waldstandorte im Kanton Zürich, Verlag der Fachvereine an den schweizerischen Hochschulen und Techniken AG, Zürich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmoldt, D. L., Peterson, D. L. and Silsbee, D. G.: 1994, ‘Developing Inventory and Monitoring Programs Based on Multiple Objectives’, Environmental Management 118, 707–727.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J.M., Csuti, B. and Davis, F.: 1991, ‘Gap Analysis: An Application of Geographic Information Systems for Wildlife Species’, in: Decker, D. J., Kransy, M. E., Goff, G. R., Smith, C. R. and Goss, D. W. (Eds.) Challenges to the Conservation of Biological Resources, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, pp. 167–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shafer, C. L.: 1990, Nature Reserves. Island Theory and Conservation in Practice, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, D., Greenleaf, J. and Berg, D.: 1993, ‘Monitoring New Forestry’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 26, 187–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherratt, T. N. and Jepson, P. C.: 1993, ‘A Metapopulation Approach to Modelling the Longterm Impact of Herbicides on Invertebrates’, Journal of Applied Ecology 30, 696–705.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shugart, H. H.: 1984, A Theory of Forest Dynamics, Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simberloff, D. S. and Abele, L. G.: 1976, ‘Island Biogeographic Theory and Conservation Practice’, Science 191, 285–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. H. G. and Kerr, J. W.: 1956, ‘Some Problems and Approaches in Classification of Site in Juvenile Stands of Douglas-fir’, Forestry Chronicle 32, 418–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spellerberg, I. F.: 1992, Evaluation and Assessment for Conservation, Chapman and Hall, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, D. L.: 1994, ‘Implementation of a National Monitoring Program’, Journal of Environmental Management 42, 1–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoeckeler, J. H.: 1960, ‘Soil Factors Affecting the Growth of Quaking Aspen Forests in the Lake States’, Minnesota Agricultural Experimental Station Technical Bulletin 233.

  • Sulser, J. S.: 1971, ‘Twenty Years of Change in the Hutcheson Memorial Forest’, William L. Hutcheson Memorial Forest Bulletin 2, 15–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tans, W.: 1974, ‘Priority Ranking of Biotic Natural Areas’, Michigan Botanist 13, 31–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Temple, S. A.: 1986, ‘Predicting Impacts of Habitat Fragmentation on Forest Birds: A Comparison of Two Models’, in: Verner, J., Morrison, M. L. and Ralph, C. J. (Eds.) Wildlife 2000: Modeling Habitat Relationships of Terrestrial Vertebrates, University of Wisconsin Press. Madison, pp. 301–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terborgh, J.: 1976, ‘Island Biogeography and Conservation: Strategy and Limitations’, Science 193, 1029–1030.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, M. G., Romme, W. H., Gardner, R. H., O'Neill, R. V. and Kratz, T. K.: 1993, ‘A Revised Concept of Landscape Equilibrium: Distance and Stability on Scaled Landscapes’, Landscape Ecology 8, 213–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Vries, W.: 1988, ‘Critical Deposition Level for Nitrogen and Sulphur on Dutch Forest Ecosystems’, Water, Air and Soil Pollution 42, 221–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wales, B. A.: 1972, ‘Vegetation Analysis of North and South Edges in a Mature Oak-Hickory Forest’, Ecological Monographs 42, 451–471.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watt, A. S.: 1919, ‘On the Causes of Failure of Natural Regeneration in Britsh Oakwoods’, Journal of Ecology 7, 173–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watt, A. S.: 1924–25, ‘On the Ecology of British Beechwoods With Special Reference to Their Regeneration. Part II. The Development and Structure of Beech Comminities on the Sussex Downs’, Journal of Ecology 12, 145–204; 13, 27–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watt, A. S.: 1947, ‘Pattern and Process in the Plant Community’, Journal of Ecology 35, 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weck, J.: 1960, ‘Klimaindex und forstliches Produktionspotential. Ein weiterer Beitrag zum Problem ihrer Korrelation’, Forstarchiv 31, 101–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiersma, G. B., Frank, C. W., Case, M. J. and Crockett, A. B.: 1984, ‘The Use of Simple Kinetic Models to Help Design Environmental Monitoring Systems’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 4, 233–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiersma, G. B. and Otis, M. D.: 1986, ‘Multimedia Design Principles Applied to the Development of the Global Baseline Integrated Monitoring Network’, in: Cohen, Y. D. (Ed.), Pollutants in a Multimedia Environment, Plenum Press, New York. pp. 317–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiersma, G. B., Otis, M. D. and White, G. J.: 1991, ‘Application of Simple Models to the Design of Environmental Monitoring Systems: A Remote Site Test Case’, Journal of Environmental Management 32, 81–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilcove, D. S., McLellan, C. H. and Dobson, A. P.: 1986, ‘Habitat Fragmentation in the Temperature Zone’. in: Soulé, M. E. (Eds.) Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, pp. 237–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, A. and Mitchell, N.: 1994, ‘Microclimate and Vegetation Edge Effects in a Fragmented Podocarp-Broadleaf Forest in New Zealand’, Biological Conservation 67, 63–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahner, R.: 1958, ‘Site-quality Relationships of Pine Forest in Southern Arkansas and Northern Louisiana’, Science 4, 163–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zipperer, W. C.: 1993, ‘Deforestation Patterns and Their Effects on Forest Patches’, Landscape Ecology 8, 177–184.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research, CH-8903, Birmensdorf, Switzerland

    John L. Innes

Authors
  1. John L. Innes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Innes, J.L. Theoretical and practical criteria for the selection of ecosystem monitoring plots in Swiss forests. Environ Monit Assess 36, 271–294 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00547906

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00547906

Keywords

Search

Navigation