Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Recent research on problems in the use of urea as a nitrogen fertilizer

  • Published:
Fertilizer research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Recent research on the NH3 volatilization, NO -2 accumulation, and phytotoxicity problems encountered in the use of urea fertilizer is reviewed. This research has shown that the adverse effects of urea fertilizers on seed germination and seedling growth in soil are due to NH3 produced through hydrolysis of urea by soil urease and can be eliminated by addition of a urease inhibitor to these fertilizers. It also has shown that the leaf burn commonly observed after foliar fertilization of soybean with urea results from accumulation of toxic amounts of urea in soybean leaves rather than formation of toxic amounts of NH3 through hydrolysis of urea by leaf urease. It further showed that this leaf burn is accordingly increased rather than decreased by addition of a urease inhibitor to the urea fertilizer applied. N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) is the most effective compound currently available for retarding hydrolysis of urea fertilizer in soil, decreasing NH3 volatilization and NO -2 accumulation in soils treated with urea, and eliminating the adverse effects of urea fertilizer on seed germination and seedling growth in soil. NBPT is a poor inhibitor of plant or microbial urease, but it decomposes quite rapidly in soil with formation of its oxon analog N-(n-butyl) phosphoric triamide, which is a potent inhibitor of urease activity. It is not as effective as phenylphosphorodiamidate (PPD) for retarding urea hydrolysis and ammonia volatilization in soils under waterlogged conditions, presumably because these conditions retard formation of its oxon analog. PPD is a potent inhibitor of urease activity but it decomposes quite rapidly in soils with formation of phenol, which is a relatively weak inhibitor of urease activity. Recent studies of the effects of pesticides on transformations of urea N in soil indicate that fungicides have greater potential than herbicides or insecticides for retarding hydrolysis of urea and nitrification of urea N in soil.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Aleem MIH and Alexander M (1960) Nutrition and physiology ofNitrobacter agilis. Appl Microbiol 8: 80–84

    Google Scholar 

  2. Alexander M (1965) Nitrification. In: Bartholomew WV and Clark FE (eds) Soil Nitrogen, pp 307–343. Am Soc Agron, Madison, WI

    Google Scholar 

  3. Beyrouty CA, Sommers LE and Nelson DW (1988) Ammonia volatilization from surface-applied urea as affected by several phosphoroamide compounds. Soil Sci Soc Am J 52: 1173–1178

    Google Scholar 

  4. Beyrouty, CA, Nelson DW and Sommers LE (1988) Effectiveness of phosphoroamides in retarding hydrolysis of urea surface-applied to soils with various pH and residue cover. Soil Sci 145: 345–352

    Google Scholar 

  5. Bremner JM and Chai HS (1986) Evaluation of N-butyl phosphorothioic triamide for retardation of urea hydrolysis in soil. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 17: 337–351

    Google Scholar 

  6. Bremner JM and Chai HS (1989) Effects of phosphoroamides on ammonia volatilization and nitrite accumulation in soils treated with urea. Biol Fertil Soils 8: 227–230

    Google Scholar 

  7. Bremner JM and Douglas LA (1971) Inhibition of urease activity in soils. Soil Biol Biochem 3: 297–307

    Google Scholar 

  8. Bremner JM and Douglas LA (1973) Effects of some urease inhibitors on urea hydrolysis in soils. Proc Soil Sci Soc Am 37: 225–226

    Google Scholar 

  9. Bremner JM and Krogmeier MJ (1988) Elimination of the adverse effects of urea fertilizer on seed germination, seedling growth, and early plant growth in soil. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85: 4601–4604

    Google Scholar 

  10. Bremner JM and Krogmeier MJ (1989) Evidence that the adverse effect of urea fertilizer on seed germination in soil is due to ammonia formed through hydrolysis of urea by soil urease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86: 8185–8188

    Google Scholar 

  11. Bremner JM and Krogmeier MJ (1990) Effects of urease inhibitors on germination of seeds in soil. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 21: 311–321

    Google Scholar 

  12. Bremner JM and Martens DA (1987) Decomposition of phenylphosphorodiamidate in soil. Agron Abstr 79

  13. Bremner JM, McCarty GW, Yeomans JC and Chai HS (1986) Effects of phosphoroamides on nitrification, denitrification, and mineralization of organic nitrogen in soil. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 17: 369–384

    Google Scholar 

  14. Bremner JM, McCarty GW and Higuchi T (1991) Persistence of the inhibitory effects of phosphoroamides on urea hydrolysis in soils. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 22: 1519–1526

    Google Scholar 

  15. Bremner JM and Mulvaney RL (1978) Urease activity. In: Burns RG (ed) Soil Enzymes pp 149–196. Academic Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  16. Bremner JM and Yeomans JC (1986) Effects of nitrification inhibitors on denitrification of nitrate in soil. Biol Fert Soils 2: 173–179

    Google Scholar 

  17. Brown PH, Welch RM and Cary EE (1987) Nickel: A micronutrient essential for higher plants. Plant Physiol 85: 801–803

    Google Scholar 

  18. Bundy LG and Bremner JM (1973). Effects of substitutedp-benzoquinones on urease activity in soils. Soil Biol Biochem 5: 847–853

    Google Scholar 

  19. Bundy LG and Bremner JM (1974) Effects of nitrification inhibitors on transformations of urea nitrogen in soils. Soil Biol Biochem 6: 369–376

    Google Scholar 

  20. Bundy LG and Bremner JM (1974) Effects of urease inhibitors on nitrification in soils. Soil Biol Biochem 6: 27–30

    Google Scholar 

  21. Buresh RJ, De Datta SK, Padilla JL and Samson MI (1988) Effect of two urease inhibitors on floodwater following urea application to lowland rice. Soil Sci Soc Am J 52: 856–861

    Google Scholar 

  22. Byrnes BH, Savant NK and Craswell ET (1983) Effect of a urease inhibitor phenyl phosphorodiamidate on the efficiency of urea applied to rice. Soil Sci Soc Am J 47: 270–274

    Google Scholar 

  23. Byrnes BH and Amberger A (1989) Fate of broadcast urea in a flooded soil when treated with N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide, a urease inhibitor. Fert Res 18: 221–231

    Google Scholar 

  24. Byrnes BH, Gutser R and Amberger A (1989) Greenhouse study on the effects of the urease inhibitors phenyl phosphorodiamidate and N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide on the efficiency of urea applied to flooded rice. Z Pflanzenernahr Bodenkd 152: 67–72

    Google Scholar 

  25. Cai GX, Freney JR, Muirhead WA, Simpson JR, Chen DL and Trevitt ACF (1989) The evaluation of urease inhibitors to improve the efficiency of urea as a N-source for flooded rice. Soil Biol Biochem 21: 137–145

    Google Scholar 

  26. Calancea L and Kiss S (1984) Effect of hydroquinone on the uptake of nitrogen from soil reserve and urea byLolium multiflorum. In: Fifth Symposium on Soil Biology, pp 65–68. Romanian Society of Soil Science, Bucharest

    Google Scholar 

  27. Catchpoole VR (1975) Pathways for losses of fertilizer nitrogen from Rhodes grass pasture in south-eastern Queensland. Aust J Agric Res 26: 259–268

    Google Scholar 

  28. Chai HS and Bremner JM (1987) Evaluation of some phosphoroamides as soil urease inhibitors. Biol Fertil Soils 3: 189–194

    Google Scholar 

  29. Court MN, Stephen RC and Waid JS (1962) Nitrite toxicity arising from the use of urea as a fertilizer. Nature 194: 1263–1265

    Google Scholar 

  30. Court MN, Stephen RC and Waid JS (1964) Toxicity as a cause of the inefficiency of urea as a fertilizer. I. Review. J Soil Sci 15: 42–48

    Google Scholar 

  31. Court MN, Stephen RC and Waid JS (1964) Toxicity as a cause of the inefficiency of urea as a fertilizer. II. Experimental. J Soil Sci 15: 49–65

    Google Scholar 

  32. Creason GL, Schmitt MR, Douglass EA and Hendrickson LL (1990) Urease inhibitory activity associated with N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide is due to formation of its oxon analog. Soil Biol Biochem 22: 209–211

    Google Scholar 

  33. Cummins DG and Parks WL (1961) The germination of corn and wheat as affected by various fertilizer salts at different soil temperatures. Soil Sci Soc Am J 25: 47–49

    Google Scholar 

  34. Dixon NE, Gazzola C, Blakeley RL and Zerner B (1975) Jack-bean urease: (E.C.3.5.1.5.3). A metalloenzyme. A simple biological role for nickel. J Am Chem Soc 97: 4131–4133

    Google Scholar 

  35. Dixon NE, Blakeley RL and Zerner Burt (1980) Jack-bean urease: (E.C.3.5.1.5.3). A metalloenzyme. A simple biological role for nickel. J Am Chem Soc 97: 4131–4133

    Google Scholar 

  36. Fenn LB and Hossner LR (1985) Ammonia volatilization from ammonium or ammonium-forming nitrogen fertilizers. Adv Soil Sci 1: 123–169

    Google Scholar 

  37. Freney JR, Smith CJ and Mosier AR (1992) Effect of a new nitrification inhibitor (wax coated calcium carbide) on transformations and recovery of fertilizer nitrogen by irrigated wheat. Fert Res 32: 1–11

    Google Scholar 

  38. Freney JR, Chen DL, Mosier AR, Rochester LJ, Constable GA and Chalk PM (1993) Use of nitrification inhibitors to increase fertilizer nitrogen recovery and lint yield in irrigated cotton. Fert Res 34: 37–44

    Google Scholar 

  39. Garcia LR and Hanway JJ (1976) Foliar fertilization of soybeans during the seed-filling period. Agron J 68: 653–657

    Google Scholar 

  40. Gasser JKR (1964) Urea as a fertilizer. Soils Fert 27: 175–180

    Google Scholar 

  41. Gooding MJ and Davies WP (1992) Foliar fertilization of cereals: a review. Fert Res 32: 209–222

    Google Scholar 

  42. Gould, WD, Hagedorn C and McCready RGL (1986) Urea transformations and fertilizer efficiency in soil. Adv Agron 40: 209–238

    Google Scholar 

  43. Goyal SA and Huffaker RC (1984) Nitrogen toxicity in plants. In: Hauck RD (ed) Nitrogen in Crop Production, pp 97–118. Am Soc Agron, Madison, WI

    Google Scholar 

  44. Gray RC (1977) In: Situation 77. Bull Y-115, pp 54–58. National Fertilizer Development Center, Muscle Shoals, AL

    Google Scholar 

  45. Gray RC and Akin GW (1984) Foliar fertilization. In: Hauck RD (ed) Nitrogen in Crop Production, pp 579–584. Am Soc Agron, Madison, WI

    Google Scholar 

  46. Harper JE (1984) Uptake of organic nitrogen forms by roots and leaves. In: Hauck RD (ed) Nitrogen in Crop Production, pp 165–182. Am Soc Agron, Madison, WI

    Google Scholar 

  47. Hauck RD (1984) Technological approaches to improving the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizer use by crop plants. In: Hauck RD (ed) Nitrogen in Crop Production, pp 551–560. Am Soc Agron, Madison, WI

    Google Scholar 

  48. Hendrickson LL (1992) Corn yield response to the urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide: 5 year summary. J Prod Agric 5: 131–137

    Google Scholar 

  49. Hinsvark ON, Wittwer SH and Tukey HB (1953) The metabolism of foliar-applied urea. I. Relative rates of C14O2 production by certain vegetable plants treated with labeled urea. Plant Physiol 28: 70–76

    Google Scholar 

  50. Joo YK, Christians NE and Bremner JM (1987) Effect of N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) on growth response and ammonia volatilization following fertilization of Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) with urea. J. Fertil. Issues 4: 98–102

    Google Scholar 

  51. Joo YK, Christians NE Spear GT and Bremner JM (1992) Evaluation of urease inhibitors as urea amendments for use on Kentucky bluegrass turf Crop Sci 32: 1397–1401

    Google Scholar 

  52. Krogmeier MJ, McCarty GW and Bremner JM (1989) Potential phytotoxicity associated with the use of urease inhibitors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86: 1110–1112

    Google Scholar 

  53. Krogmeier MJ, McCarty GW and Bremner JM (1989) Phytotoxicity of foliar-applied urea. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86: 8189–8191

    Google Scholar 

  54. Krogmeier MJ, McCarty GW, Shogren DR and Bremner JM (1991) Effect of nickel deficiency in soybeans on the phytotoxicity of foliar-applied urea. Plant and Soil 135: 283–286

    Google Scholar 

  55. Liantie L, Wang ZP, Van Cleemput O and Baert L (1993) Urea N uptake efficiency of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) in the presence of urease inhibitors. Biol Fertil Soils 15: 225–228

    Google Scholar 

  56. Li RH, Zhao XY and Zhou LK (1991) Application of hydroquinone-containing urea in China. In: The Collections of the the 7th National Conference on Soil Science pp 131–132. Chinese National Society of Soil Science, Changsha

    Google Scholar 

  57. Lu W, Lindau CW, Pardue JH, Patrick WH, Reddy KK and Khind CS (1989) Potential of phenylphosphorodiamidate and N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide for inhibiting urea hydrolysis in simulated oxidized and reduced soils. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 20: 775–788.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Low AJ and Piper FJ (1961) Urea as a fertilizer. J Agric Sci 57: 249–255

    Google Scholar 

  59. Magalhaes AMT and Chalk PM (1987) Nitrogen transformations during hydrolysis and nitrification of urea. 2. Effect of fertilizer concentration and nitrification inhibitors. Fert Res 11: 173–184

    Google Scholar 

  60. Martens DA and Bremner JM (1984) Effectiveness of phosphoroamides for retardation of urea hydrolysis in soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 48: 302–305

    Google Scholar 

  61. Martens DA and Bremner JM (1984) Effects of fungicides on transformations of urea nitrogen in soil. Agron Abstr 189

  62. Martens DA and Bremner JM (1985) Effects of grass herbicides on transformations of urea nitrogen in soil. Agron Abstr 160

  63. Martens DA and Bremner JM (1986) Effects of insecticides on transformations of urea nitrogen in soil. Agron Abstr 183

  64. Martens DA and Bremner JM (1993) Influence of herbicides on transformations of urea nitrogen in soils. J Environ Sci Health 28: 377–393

    Google Scholar 

  65. McCarty GW, Bremner JM and Chai HS (1989) Effect of N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide on hydrolysis of urea by plant, microbial, and soil urease. Biol Fertil Soils 8: 123–127

    Google Scholar 

  66. McCarty GW and Bremner JM (1989) Formation of phosphoryl triamide by decomposition of thiophosphoryl triamide in soil. Biol Fertil Soils 8: 290–292

    Google Scholar 

  67. McElhannon WS and Mills HA (1981) Inhibition of denitrification by nitrapyrin with field-grown sweet corn. J Am Soc Hort Sci 106: 673–677

    Google Scholar 

  68. McElhannon WS and Mills HA (1981) Suppression of denitrification with nitrapyrin. Hort Science 16: 530–531

    Google Scholar 

  69. McElhannon WS, Mills HA and Bush PB (1984) Simazine and atrazine-suppression of denitrification. HortScience 19: 218–219

    Google Scholar 

  70. Mills HA (1984) A procedure for rapidly evaluating the effect of chemicals on denitrification. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 15: 1007–1016

    Google Scholar 

  71. Mills HA and McElhannon WS (1984) Terrazole suppression of denitrification. HortScience 19: 54–55

    Google Scholar 

  72. Mulvaney RL and Bremner JM (1978) Use ofp-benzoquinone and hydroquinone for retardation of urea hydrolysis in soils. Soil Biol Biochem 10: 297–302

    Google Scholar 

  73. Mulvaney RL and Bremner JM (1981) Control of urea transformations in soils. In: Paul EA and Ladd JN (eds) Soil Biochemistry, Vol. 5, pp 153–196. Marcel Dekker, New York

    Google Scholar 

  74. Poole WD, Randall GW and Ham GE (1983) Foliar fertilization of soybeans. II Effect of biuret and application time of day. Agron J 75: 201–203

    Google Scholar 

  75. Rader LF, White LH and Whittaker CW (1943) The salt index- A measure of the effect of fertilizers on the concentration of the soil solution. Soil Sci 55: 201–218

    Google Scholar 

  76. Radel RJ, Gautney J and Peters GE (1988) Urease inhibitor developments.In Bock B and Kissel D (eds) Ammonia Volatilization from Urea Fertilizers, pp 111–136. Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, AL

    Google Scholar 

  77. Radel RJ, Randle AA, Gautney J, Bock BR and Williams HM (1992) Thiophosphoryl triamide: a dual purpose urease/nitrification inhibitor. Fert Res 31: 275–280

    Google Scholar 

  78. Rao DLN and Ghai SK (1985) Effect of phenylphosphorodiamidate on urea hydrolysis, ammonia volatilization and rice growth in an alkali soil. Plant and Soil 94: 313–320

    Google Scholar 

  79. Rao DLN and Ghai SK (1986) Urease inhibitors: effect on wheat growth in an alkali soil. Soil Biol Biochem 18: 255–258

    Google Scholar 

  80. Rappaport BD and Axley JH (1984) Potassium chloride for improved urea fertilizer efficiency. Soil Sci Soc Am J 48: 399–401

    Google Scholar 

  81. Rotini OT (1956) La transformazione enzimatica dell'-urea nell terreno. Ann Fac Agric Univ Pisa 17: 1–25

    Google Scholar 

  82. Schlegel AJ, Nelson DW and Sommers LE (1987) Use of urease inhibitors and urea fertilizers on winter wheat. Fert Res 11: 97–111

    Google Scholar 

  83. Shimado N and Ando T (1980) Role of nickel in plant nutrition. II. Effect of nickel on the assimilation of urea by plants. Nippon Dojo Hiryogaku Zasshi 51: 493–496

    Google Scholar 

  84. Smith CJ, Freney JR, Chalk PM, Galbally IE, McKenney DJ and Cai GX (1988) Fate of urea nitrogen applied in solution in furrows to sunflowers growing on a red-brown earth: transformations, losses and plant uptake. Aust J Agric Res 39: 793–806

    Google Scholar 

  85. Smith CJ, Freney JR, Chapman SL and Galbally IE (1989) Fate of urea nitrogen applied to irrigated wheat at heading. Aust J Agric Res 40: 951–963.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Smith CJ, Freney JR and Mosier AR (1993) Effect of acetylene provided by wax-coated calcium carbide on transformations of urea nitrogen applied to an irrigated wheat crop. Biol Fert Soils 16: 86–92

    Google Scholar 

  87. Terman GL (1979) Volatilization losses of nitrogen as ammonia from surface-applied fertilizers, organic amendments, and crop residues. Adv Agron 31: 189–223

    Google Scholar 

  88. Tomlinson TE (1970) Urea: Agronomic applications. Proc Fert Soc 113: 1–76

    Google Scholar 

  89. Van Cleemput O and Wang Zhengping (1991) Urea transformations and urease inhibitors. Trends Soil Sci 1: 45–52

    Google Scholar 

  90. Vasilas BL, Legg JO and Wolf DC (1980) Foliar fertilization of soybeans: Adsorption and translocation of15N-labeled urea. Agron J 72: 271–275

    Google Scholar 

  91. Vlek P and Fillery I (1984) Improving nitrogen efficiency in wetland rice soils. Proc Fert Soc No. 230

  92. Voss RD (1984) Potential for use of urease inhibitors. In: Hauck RD (ed) Nitrogen in Crop Production, pp 571–577. Am Soc Agron, Madison, WI

    Google Scholar 

  93. Wang Zhengping, Van Cleemput O and Baert L (1989) Effect of urease inhibitors on nitrification in soil. Soil Use Manage 6: 41–43

    Google Scholar 

  94. Wang Zhengping, Liante L, Van Cleemput O and Baert L (1989) Effect of urease inhibitors on denitrification in soil. Soil Use Manage 7: 230–233

    Google Scholar 

  95. Widdowson, FV Penney A and Cooke GW (1960) The value of calcium nitrate and urea for main-crop potatoes and kale. J Agric Sci 55: 1–10

    Google Scholar 

  96. Wilkinson SR and Ohlrogge AJ (1960) Influence of biuret and urea fertilizers containing biuret on corn plant growth and development. Agron J 52: 560–562

    Google Scholar 

  97. Xiaoyan, Z, Likai Z, Ronghua L, Guiru A and Bo Z (1993) Effect of hydroquinone on maize yield and urea efficiency. Soil Biol Biochem 25: 147–148

    Google Scholar 

  98. Yeomans JC and Bremner JM (1985a) Denitrification in soil: Effects of herbicides. Soil Biol Biochem 17: 447–452

    Google Scholar 

  99. Yeomans JC and Bremner JM (1985b) Denitrification in soil: Effects of insecticides and fungicides. Soil Biol Biochem 17: 453–456

    Google Scholar 

  100. Yeomans JC and Bremner JM (1986) Effects of urease inhibitors on denitrification in soil. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 17: 63–73

    Google Scholar 

  101. Youngdahl L, Lupin MS and Craswell ET (1986) New developments in nitrogen fertilizer for rice. Fert Res 9: 149–160

    Google Scholar 

  102. Zhao XY, Zhou LK and Wu GY (1988) Environmental impact assessment of hydroquinone used as a urease inhibitor (1). AgroEnviron Protect 7: 18–20

    Google Scholar 

  103. Zhao XY, Zhou LK and Xie CG (1989) Environmental impact assessment of hydroquinone used as a urease inhibitor (2). AgronEnviron Protect 8: 28–30

    Google Scholar 

  104. Zhou LK and Wu GY (1988) Effect of urease inhibitor hydroquinone on the efficiency of urea fertilizer. Acta Pedol 25: 191–198

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University, 50011, Ames, IA, USA

    J. M. Bremner

Authors
  1. J. M. Bremner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bremner, J.M. Recent research on problems in the use of urea as a nitrogen fertilizer. Fertilizer Research 42, 321–329 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00750524

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00750524

Key words

Search

Navigation