Skip to main content
Log in

The biochemistry of natural fasting at its limits

  • Multi-author Review
  • Ecological Implications of Metabolic Biochemistry
  • Published:
Experientia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There are several groups of animals that are adapted for extremely long duration fasting as part of their reproductive cycle. Penguins, bears and seals routinely fast without food or water for months at time. However, they do not ‘starve’, as the biochemical implications of starving are very different from those of successful fasting. There are distinct biochemical adaptations in lipid, carbohydrate and especially protein metabolism that allow these animals to survive. It appears, at least for penguins and seals, that the duration of the fast may be limited by changes that occur in biochemical regulation near the end of the fast. In all of these species, the biochemistry of fasting and the ecological and behavioral demands of their breeding cycles are closely interrelated.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Adams, S. H., Changes in protein metabolism and water conservation in northern elephant seals pups during the postweaning fast. MS Thesis, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Ahlquist, D. A., Nelson, R. A., Steiger, D. L., Jones, J. D. and Ellefson, R. D., Glycerol metabolism in the hibernating black bear. J. comp. Physiol.155 (1984) 75–79.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Bailey, B. A., Downer, R. G. H., Lavigne, D. M., Drolet, G., and Worthy, G. A. J., Changes in fatty acid composition of plasma of the harp seal,Pagophilus groenlandicus during the post-weaning fast. J. comp. Physiol.70(B) (1981) 795–798.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Baumber, J., South, F. E., Ferren, L., and Zatman, M. L., A possible basis for periodic arousal during hibernation: accumulation of ketone bodies. Life Sci.10 (1971) 463–467.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Bowen, W. D., Boness, D. J., and Oftedal, O. T., Mass transfer from mother to pup and subsequent mass loss by the weaned pup in the hooded seal,Cystophora cristata. Can. J. Zool.65 (1987) 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Bowen, W. D., Oftedal, O. T., and Boness, D. J., Birth to weaning in four days: remarkable growth in the hooded seal,Cytophora cristata. Can. J. Zool.63 (1985) 2841–2846.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Boyd, I. L., and Duck, C. D., Mass changes and metabolism in territorial male antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella). Physiol. Zool.64(1) (1991) 375–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Bryden, M. M., and Stokes, G. B., Metabolism of fatty acids in the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina). Can. J. Biochem.47(8) (1969) 757–760.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Burton, B. T., Human Nutrition. A Textbook of Nutrition in Health and Disease. McGraw-Hill, New York 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Cahill, G. F., Herrera, M. G., Morgan, A. P., Soeldner, J. S., Steinke, J., Levy, P. L., Reichard, G. A., and Kipnis, D. M., Hormone-fuel interrelationships during fasting. J. clin. Invest.45(11) (1966) 1751–1769.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Castellini, M. A., and Costa, D. P., Relationships between plasma ketones and fasting duration in neonatal elephant seals. Am. J. Physiol.259 (1990) R1086-R1089.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Castellini, M. A., Costa, D. P., and Huntley, A. C., Fatty acid metabolism in fasting northern elephant seal pups. J. comp. Physiol.157(B) (1987) 445–449.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Cherel, Y., and Le Maho, Y., Five months of fasting in king penguin chicks: Body mass loss and fuel metabolism. Am. J. Physiol.249 (1985) R387-R392.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Cherel, Y., Robin, J.-P., and Le Maho, Y., Physiology and biochemistry of long-term fasting in birds. Can. J. Zool.66 (1988) 159–166.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Cherel, Y., Stahl, J.-C., and Le Maho, Y., Ecology and physiology of fasting in king penguin chicks. Auk104 (1987) 254–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Condit, R. S., and Oritz, C. L., The physiological transition from fasting to feeding in weaned elephant seal pups. Mar. Mamm. Sci.3(3) (1987) 207–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Costa, D. P., Le Boeuf, B. J., Ortiz, C. L., and Huntley, A. C., The energetics of lactation in the northern elephant seal. J. Zool. Lond.209 (1986) 21–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Costa, D. P., and Ortiz, C. L., Blood chemistry homeostasis during prolonged fasting in northern elephant seals. Am. J. Physiol.242 (1982) R591-R595.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Depocas, F., Hart, J. S., and Fisher, H. D., Sea water drinking and water flux in starved and fed harbor seals,Phoca vitulina. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmac.49 (1971) 53–62.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Derocher, A. E., Nelson, R. A., Stirling, I., and Ramsay, M. A., Effects of fasting and feeding on serum urea and serum creatinine levels in polar bears. Mar. Mamm. Sci.6(3) (1990) 196–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Deutsch, C. J., Haley, M. P., and Le Boeuf, B. J., Reproductive effort of male northern elephant seals: estimates from mass loss. Can. J. Zool.68 (1990) 2580–2593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Florant, G. L., Tokuyama, K., and Rintoul, D. A., Carbohydrate and lipid utilization in hibernators, in: Living in the Cold II, pp. 137–145. Eds A. Malan and B. Cangiulhem. John Libbey Eurotext Ltd, London 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Friedman, M. I., Tordoff, M. G., and Kare, M. R., (Eds), Chemical Senses, vol. 4. Appetite and Nutrition. Marcel Dekker, New York 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Goodman, M. N., Larsen, P. R., Kaplan, M. M., Aoki, T. T., Young, V. R., and Ruderman, N. B., Starvation in the rat. II. Effect of age and obesity on protein sparing and fuel metabolism. Am. J. Physiol.239 (1980) E277-E286.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Grande, F., Man under caloric deficiency, in: Handbook of Physiology. Adaptation to the Environment, pp. 911–937. Eds D. B. Dill, E. F. Adolph and C. G. Wilber. American Physiological Society, Washington, D.C. 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Groscolas, R., Changes in body mass, body temperature and plasma fuel levels during the natural breeding fast in male and female emperor penguinsAptenodytes forsteri. J. comp. Physiol.156(B) (1986) 521–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Groscolas, R., Metabolic adaptations to fasting in emperor and king penguins, in: Penguin Biology, pp. 269–296. Eds L. S. Davis and J. T. Darby. Academic Press, New York 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Harlow, H. J., Beck, T. D. I., Walters, L. M., and Greenhouse, S. S., Seasonal serum glucose, progesterone, and cortisol levels of black bears (Ursus americanus). Can. J. Zool.68 (1990) 183–187.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Henry, C. J. K., Rivers, J. P. W., and Payne, P. R., Protein and energy metabolism in starvation reconsidered. Eur. J. clin. Nutr.42 (1988) 543–549.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Hochachka, P. W., and Guppy, M., Metabolic Arrest and the Control of Biological Time. Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1987.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  31. Hoffer, L. J., Starvation, in: Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, pp. 774–794. Eds M. E. Shils and V. R. Young. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Kopple, J. D., Nutrition and the kidney, in: Nutrition, Metabolic and Clinical Applications, pp. 409–457. Ed R. E. Hodges. Plenum Press, New York 1979.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  33. Le Boeuf, B. J., Elephant seals, in: The Natural History of Ano Nuevo, pp. 326–374. Eds B. J. Le Boeuf and S. Kaza. Boxwood Press, Pacific Grove, CA 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Le Boeuf, B. J., and Peterson, R. S., Social status and mating activity in elephant seals. Science163 (1969) 91–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Le Maho, Y. The emperor penguin: A strategy to live and breed in the cold. Am. Sci.65 (1977) 680–693.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Le Maho, Y., Robin, J.-P., and Cherel, Y., The metabolic features of starvation, in: Comparative Physiology of Environmental Adaptations 2. Adaptations to Extreme Environments, pp. 177–187. Ed P. Dejours. Karger, Basel 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Le Maho, Y., Robin, J.-P., and Cherel, Y., Starvation as a treatment for obesity: The need to conserve body protein. NIPS3 (1988) 21–24.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Le Maho, Y., Vu Van Kha, H., Koubi, H., Dewasmes, G., Girard, J., Ferre, O. and Cagnard, M., Body composition, energy expenditure, and plasma metabolites in long-term fasting geese. Am. J. Physiol.241 (1981) E342-E354.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Linder, M. C., Nutrition and metabolism of proteins, in: Nutritional Biochemistry and Metabolism with Clinical Applications, pp. 51–68. Ed. M. C. Linder. Elsevier, New York 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Lundberg, D. A., Nelson, R. A., Wahner, H. W., and Jones, J. D., Protein metabolism in the black bear before and during hibernation. Mayo clin. Proc.51 (1976) 716–722.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Lyman, C. P., Willis, J., Malan, A., and Wang, L., Hibernation and Torpor in Mammals and Birds. Academic Press, New York 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Nelson, R. A., Urea metabolism in the hibernating black bear. Kid. Intl.13, Suppl. 8 (1978) S177-S179.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Nelson, R. A., Protein and fat metabolism in hibernating bears. Fedn Proc.39 (1980) 2955–2958.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Nelson, R. A., Black bears and polar bears — Still metabolic marvels. Mayo clin. Proc.62 (1987) 850–853.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Nelson, R. A., Beck, T. D. I., and Steiger, D. L., Ratio of serum urea to serum creatinine in wild black bears. Science226 (1984) 841–842.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Nelson, R. A., Folk, G. E., Pfeiffer, E. W., Craighead, J. J., Jonkel, C. J., and Steiger, D. L., Behavior, biochemistry, and hibernation in black, grizzly, and polar bears. Int. Conf. Bear Res. Manage.5 (1980) 284–290.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Nelson, R. A., Jones, W. D., Wahner, H. W., McGill, D. B., and Code, C. F., Nitrogen metabolism in bears: Urea metabolism in summer starvation and in winter sleep and role of urinary bladder in water and nitrogen conservation. Mayo clin. Proc.50 (1975) 141–146.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Nelson, R. A., Wahner, H. W., Jones, J. D., Ellefson, R. D., and Zollman, P. E., Metabolism of bears before, during, and after winter sleep. Am. J. Physiol.224(2) (1973) 491–496.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Nicolaidis, S., What determines food intake? The ischymetric theory. NIPS2 (1987) 104–107.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Nordoy, E. S., and Blix, A. S., Energy sources in fasting grey seal pups evaluated with computed tomography. Am. J. Physiol.249 (1985) R471-R476.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Nordoy, F. S., and Blix, A. S., Glucose and ketone body turnover in fasting grey seal pups. Acta physiol. scand.4 (1991) 565–571.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Nordoy, F. S., Ingebretsen, O. C., and Blix, A. S., Depressed metabolism and low protein catabolism in fasting grey seal pups. Acta physiol. scand.139 (1990) 361–369.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Oftedal, O. T., Boness, D. J., and Tedman, R. A., The behavior, physiology and anatomy of lactation in the Pinnepedia, in: Current Mammology, pp. 175–245. Ed. H. H. Genoways. Plenum Press, New York 1987.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  54. Oomura, Y., Regulation of feeding by neural responses to endogenous factors. NIPS2 (1987) 199–203.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Oritsland, N. A., Pasche, A., Markussen, N. H., and Ronald, K., Weight loss and catabolic adaptations to starvation in grey seal pups. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.82(A) (1985) 931–933.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Ortiz, C. L., Costa, D. P., and Le Boeuf, B. J., Water and energy flux in elephant seal pups fasting and under natural conditions. Physiol. Zool.51 (1978) 166–178.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Ortiz, C. L., Le Boeuf, B. J., and Costa, D. P., Milk intake of elephant seal pups: an index of parental investment. Am. Nat.124 (1984) 416–422.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Pernia, S. D., Hill, A., and Ortiz, C. L., Urea turnover during prolonged fasting in the northern elephant seal. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.65(B) (1980) 731–734.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Ramsay, M. A., Nelson, R. A., and Stirling, I., Seasonal changes in the ratio of serum urea to creatinine in feeding and fasting polar bears. Can. J. Zool.69 (1991) 298–302.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Rea, L. D., and Costa, D. P., Changes in standard metabolism during long-term fasting in northern elephant seal pups (Mirounga angustirostris). Physiol. Zool. (1992) in press.

  61. Rea, L. D., and Castellini, M. A., Plasma fuel levels during prolonged fasting in elephant seal pups (Mirounga angustirostris). 3rd IUBS (1991) 163 (Abstract).

  62. Reilly, J. J., Adaptations to prolonged fasting in free-living weaned gray seal pups. Am. J. Physiol.260(2) (1991) R267-R272.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Reiter, J., Stinson, N. L., and Le Boeuf, B. J., Northern elephant seal development: the transition from weaning to nutritional independence. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.3 (1978) 337–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Riedman, M., The Pinnipeds. Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses. University of California Press, Berkeley 1990.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  65. Ritter, R. C., Ritter, S., and Barmes, C. D., (Eds), Feeding Behavior. Neural and Humoral Controls, Academic Press, Orlando 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Robin, J.-P., Frain, M., Sardet, C., Groscolas, R., and Le Maho, Y., Protein and lipid utilization during long-term fasting in emperor penguins. Am. J. Physiol.254 (1988) R61-R68.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Shoden, R. J., and Griffin, W. S., Fundamentals of Clinical Nutrition. McGraw-Hill, New York 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Stewart, W. K., and Fleming, L. W., Features of a successful therapeutic fast of 382 days' duration. Post-grad med. J.49 (1973) 203–209.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Van Itallie, T. B., and Yang, M. U., Cardiac dysfunction in obese dieters: a potentially lethal complication of rapid, massive weight loss. Am. J. clin. Nutr.39 (1984) 695–702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Williams, J. D., Crocker, D. E., and Costa, D. P., Free fatty acid and ketone levels in post-partum female elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris). Marine Mammal Society (1991) Abstract.

  71. Worthy, G. A. J., Metabolism and growth of young harp and grey seals. Can. J. Zool.65 (1987) 1377–1382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Worthy, G. A. J., and Lavigne, D. M., Energetics of fasting and subsequent growth in weaned harp seal pups,Phoca groenlandica. Can. J. Zool.61(2) (1983) 447–456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Worthy, G. A. J., and Lavigne, D. M., Mass loss, metabolic rate, and energy utilization by harp and gray seal pups during the postweaning fast. Physiol. Zool.60(3) (1987) 352–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Young, V. R., and Scrimshaw, N. S., The physiology of starvation. Sci. Amer.225(4) (1971) 14–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Castellini, M.A., Rea, L.D. The biochemistry of natural fasting at its limits. Experientia 48, 575–582 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01920242

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01920242

Key words

Navigation