Summary
This paper reviews the development of low-energy light ion accelerator-based neutron sources (ABNSs) for the treatment of brain tumors through an intact scalp and skull using boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). A major advantage of an ABNS for BNCT over reactor-based neutron sources is the potential for siting within a hospital. Consequently, light-ion accelerators that are injectors to larger machines in high-energy physics facilities are not considered. An ABNS for BNCT is composed of: (1) the accelerator hardware for producing a high current charged particle beam, (2) an appropriate neutron-producing target and target heat removal system (HRS), and (3) a moderator/reflector assembly to render the flux energy spectrum of neutrons produced in the target suitable for patient irradiation. As a consequence of the efforts of researchers throughout the world, progress has been made on the design, manufacture, and testing of these three major components. Although an ABNS facility has not yet been built that has optimally assembled these three components, the feasibility of clinically useful ABNSs has been clearly established. Both electrostatic and radio frequency linear accelerators of reasonable cost (∼$1.5 M) appear to be capable of producing charged particle beams, with combinations of accelerated particle energy (a few MeV) and beam currents (∼10 mA) that are suitable for a hospital-based ABNS for BNCT. The specific accelerator performance requirements depend upon the charged particle reaction by which neutrons are produced in the target and the clinical requirements for neutron field quality and intensity. The accelerator performance requirements are more demanding for beryllium than for lithium as a target. However, beryllium targets are more easily cooled. The accelerator performance requirements are also more demanding for greater neutron field quality and intensity. Target HRSs that are based on submerged-jet impingement and the use of microchannels have emerged as viable target cooling options. Neutron fields for reactor-based neutron sources provide an obvious basis of comparison for ABNS field quality. This paper compares Monte Carlo calculations of neutron field quality for an ABNS and an idealized standard reactor neutron field (ISRNF). The comparison shows that with lithium as a target, an ABNS can create a neutron field with a field quality that is significantly better (by a factor of ∼1.2, as judged by the relative biological effectiveness (RBE)-dose that can be delivered to a tumor at a depth of 6 cm) than that for the ISRNF. Also, for a beam current of 10 mA, the treatment time is calculated to be reasonable (∼30 min) for the boron concentrations that have been assumed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Tanaka K, Kobayashi T, Sakurai Y, Nakagawa Y, Ishikawa M, Hoshi M: Irradiation characteristics of BNCT using near-threshold7Li(p,n)7Be direct neutrons: application to intra-operative BNCT for malignant brain tumors. Phys Med Biol 47: 3011–3032, 2002
Nigg D, Wemple C: Modification of the University of Washington Neutron Radiotherapy Facility for optimization of neutron capture enhanced fast neutron therapy. Med Phys 27: 359–367, 2000
Blue JW, Roberts WK, Blue TE, Gahbauer RA, Vincent JS: A study of low energy proton accelerators for neutron capture therapy. In: Hatanaka H (Niigata: Nishimura) (ed) Neutron Capture Therapy, 1986. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Neutron Capture Therapy, Tokyo, Japan, October 1985, pp 147–158
Brownell GL, Kirsch JE, Kehayias J: Accelerator production of epithermal neutrons for neutron capture therapy In: Hatanaka H (Niigata: Nishimura) (ed) Neutron Capture Therapy, 1986. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Neutron Capture Therapy, Tokyo, Japan, October 1985, pp 127–138
Wang CK, Blue TE, Gahbauer R: A neutronic study of an accelerator-based neutron irradiation facility for boron neutron capture therapy. Nucl Tech 84: 93–107, 1989
Dolan TJ, Ottewitte EH, Wills EE, Neuman WA, Woodall DM: Non-reactor neutron sources for BNCT. Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Informal Report, EGG-BNCT-8319. May, 1989
Shefer RE, Klinkowstein RE, Yanch JC, Brownell GL: A versatile, new accelerator for boron neutron capture therapy: accelerator design and neutron energy considerations. In: Harling OK and Bernard JA (eds) Neutron Beam Design, Development and Performance for Neutron Capture Therapy, Plenum Press, New York, 1989, pp 259–270
Yanch JC, Zhou X-I, Shefer IE, Klinkowstein RE: Accelerator-based epithermal neutron beam design for neutron capture therapy. Med Phys 19: 709–721, 1992
Wu T, Brugger R, Kunze J: Low energy accelerator-based neutron source for neutron capture therapy. In: Barth R, Soloway A (eds) Advances in Neutron Capture Therapy. Plenum Press, New York, 1993, pp 105–108
Wang CK, Moore BR: Thick beryllium target as an epithermal neutron source for neutron capture therapy. Med Phys 21: 1633–1638, 1994
Bleuel DL, Donahue RJ: Optimization of the7Li(p,n) proton beam energy for BNCT applications. LBL-37983, Rev 1, May 1996
Ludewigt BA, Chu WT, Donahue RJ, Kwan J, Phillips TL, Reginato LL, Wells RP: An epithermal neutron source for BNCT based on an ESQ-accelerator. Proceedings of the Topical Meeting on Nuclear Applications of Accelerator Technology, Albuquerque, New Mexico, November 16–20, 1997
Bleuel DL, Donahue RJ, Ludewigt BA, Vujic J: Designing accelerator-based epithermal neutron beams for boron neutron capture therapy. Med Phys 25: 1725–1734, 1998
Lee CL, Zhou X-L, Kudchadker RJ, Harmon F, Harker YD: A Monte Carlo dosimetry-based evaluation of the7Li(p,n)7Be reaction near threshold for accelerator boron neutron capture therapy. Med Phys 27: 192–202, 2000
Zimin S, Allen BJ: Study of moderator thickness for an accelerator-based neutron irradiation facility for boron neutron capture therapy using the7Li(p,n) reaction near threshold. Phys Med Biol: 59–67, 2000
Yokobori H: Design study on an accelerator-based facility for BNCT and low energy neutron source. Prog Nucl Energy 37(1–4): 321–326, 2000
Tanaka K, Kobayashi T, Sakurai Y, Nakagawa Y, Endo S, Hoshi M: Dose distributions in a human head phantom for neutron capture therapy using moderated neutrons from the 2.5 MeV proton-7Li reaction or from fission of235U. Phys Med Biol 46: 2681–2695, 2001
Avilov MS, Gubin KV, Kh Kot N, Logatchev PV, Martyshkin PV, Morozov SN, Shiyankov SV, Starostenko AA: Project of proton accelerator based target for neutron production. Proceedings of the Second Asian Particle Accelerator Conference, Beijing, China, 2001
Montagnini B, Cerullo N, Esposito J, Giusti V, Mattioda F, Varone R: Spectrum shaping of accelerator-based neutron beams for BNCT. Nucl Instrum Meth Phys Res A 476: 2002, 90–98
Agosteo S, Curzio G, d’Errico F, Nath R, Tinti R: Characterisation of an Accelerator-based neutron source for BNCT versus beam energy. Nucl Instrum Meth Phys Res A 476: 106–112, 2002
Bisceglie E, Colangelo P, Colonna N, Paticchio V, Santorelli V, Variale V: Production of epithermal neutron beams for BNCT. Nucl Instrum Meth Phys Res A 476: 2002, 123–126
Allen DA, Beynon TD, Green D, James ND: Toward a final design for the Birmingham boron neutron capture therapy neutron beam. Med Phys 26: 77–82, 1999
Allen DA, Beynon TD, Green S: Design for an accelerator-based orthogonal epithermal neutron beam for boron neutron capture therapy. Med Phys 26: 71–76, 1999
Allen DA, Beynon TD: What is the best proton energy for accelerator-based BNCT using the7Li(p,n)7Be reaction? Med Phys 27: 1113–1118, 2000
DOE Workshop on Accelerator-Based BNCT, Boston Massachusetts, 7–8 July, 1999
Yanch JC, Shefer RE, Klinkowstein RE, Howard WB, Song H, Blackburn B, Binello E: Research in boron neutron capture therapy at MIT LABA. In: Duggan JL, Morgan IL (ed) Applications of Accelerators in Research and Industry. AIP Press, Woodbury, New York, Part Two, 1996, pp 1281–1284
Gierga DP: Neutron Delivery for Boron Neutron Capture Synovectomy. Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2001
Lone MA, Ross AM, Fraser JS, Schriber SO, Kushneriuk SA, Selander WN: Low energy7Li(p,n)7Be neutron source (Canutron), Chalk River Laboratories Report AECL-7413, 1982
Wangler TP, Stovall JE, Bhatia TS, Wang CK, Blue TE, Gahbauer RA: Conceptual design of an RFQ accelerator-based neutron source for boron neutron capture therapy. Los Alamos National Laboratory article LAUR89-912, 1989 Particle Accelerator Conference, Chicago, IL, March 20–23, 1989
Cornelius WD: CW Operation of the FMITRFQ accelerator. Nucl Instrum Meth B10/11, p 859, 1985
McMichael GE, Yule TJ, Zhou X-L: The Argonne ACWL, A Potential Accelerator-Based Neutron Source for BNCT. Nucl Instrum Meth Phys Res B 99: 1995, 847
Swenson DA: Compact, linac-based source of epithermal neutrons for BNCT. Eighth International Symposium on Neutron Capture Therapy for Cancer, La Jolla, CA, September 1998
Howard WB, Grimes SM, Massey TN, Al-Quaraishi SI, Jacobs DK, Brient CE, Yanch JC: Measurement of the thick target 9Be(p,n) neutron energy spectra. Nucl Sci Eng 139: 145–160, 2001
Burlon AA, Kreiner AJ, White S, Yanch JC, Blackburn B, Gierga D: In-phantom dosimetry using the 13C(d,n)14N reaction for BNCT. Med Phys 28: 796–803, 2001
Dobelbower MC, Blue TE, Garnett RW: Design and shielding of a beam transport system for use in an accelerator-based epithermal neutron source for BNCT. Proceedings of First International Workshop on Accelerator-Based Neutron Sources for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy, Jackson, WY, September 11–14, 1994, INEL Report Conference-940976, 1995, pp 99–110
Blackburn BW, Yanch JC, Klinkowstein RE: Development of a high-power water cooled beryllium target for use in accelerator-based boron neutron capture therapy. Med Phys 25: 1967–1974, 1998
Blackburn B, Yanch JC: Liquid gallium cooling of a high-power beryllium target for use in accelerator boron neutron capture therapy (ABNCT). In: McCarthy TJ (ed) Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Target & Target Chemistry, St. Louis, MO, June 23–26, 1999, December 2000
Personal communication with Allen DA
Harling OK, Riley KJ: Fission reactor neutron sources for neutron capture therapy - a critical review. J Neuro-Oncol 62: 7–17, 2003
Woollard JE, Blue TE, Gupta N, Gahbauer RA: Development and application of neutron field optimization parameters for an accelerator-based neutron source for boron neutron capture therapy. Nucl Tech 115: 100–113, 1996
Orr MT, Blue TE, Woollard JE: Using DORT to improve the moderator assembly design for the OSU accelerator-based neutron source for boron neutron capture therapy. Proceedings of the embedded Topl. Mtg. Accelerator applications/accelerator driven transmutation technology and applications ’01, Reno, NV, November 11–15, 2001, Am Nucl Soc (CD-ROM)
Woollard JE, Gupta N, Blue TE, Gahbauer RA: Neutron field optimization parameters for boron neutron capture therapy. Trans Am Nucl Soc 73: 25–26, 1995
Auterinen I, Hiismaki P: Design of an epithermal neutron beam for the TRIGA Reactor in Otaniemi. In: Auterinen I, Kallio M (eds) Proceedings of the CLINCT BNCT workshop. Helsinki 1993, Helsinki University of Technology Report TKK-F-A718, 1994
Nigg DW, Mitchell He, Harker YD, Harmon JF: Experimental investigation of filtered epithermal photoneutron beams for BNCT. Adv Neutron Capture Therapy 1(Elsevier): 477–482, 1997
Wheeler F, Nigg D: Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT): implications of neutron beam and boron compound characteristics. Med Phys 26: 1237–1244, 1999
Yoon WY, Jones JL, Nigg DW, Harker YD: Accelerator-based neutron source for boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) and method. U.S. Patent Number 5903622, May 11, 1999
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Blue, T.E., Yanch, J.C. Accelerator-based epithermal neutron sources for boron neutron capture therapy of brain tumors. J Neuro-Oncol 62, 19–31 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02699931
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02699931