Abstract
This is the 14th ERIC/ECTJ Annual Review Paper, preparation of which was supported by the ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) Clearinghouse on Information Resources, Syracuse University. The material in this article was prepared pursuant to a contract with the National Institute of Education, U.S. Department of Education. Contractors undertaking such projects under govemment sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their judgement in professional and technical matters. Points of view or opinions do not necessarily represent the official view or opinion of the NIE.—Ed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alesandrini, K. L. (1987). Computer graphics in learning and instruction. In H. A. Houghton and D. M. Willows (Eds.),The psychology of illustration: Vol. 2: Instructional issues. New York: Springer Verlag.
Askwall, S. (1985). Computer supported reading versus reading text on paper: A comparison of two reading situations.International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 22, 425–439.
Avons, S. E., Beveridge, M. C., Hickman, A. T., & Hitch, G. J. (1983). Teaching journey graphs with micro-computer animation.Human Learning, 2, 93–105.
Backmann, J., Lundberg, I., Nilsson, L., & Ohlsson, K. (1984). Reading skill and text structure.Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 32(1) p. 51 (Abstract).
Beck, C. R. (1984). Visual cueing strategies: Pictorial, textual and combinational effects.Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 32(4), 207–216.
Beggs, W. D. A., & Howarth, P. N. (1985). Inner speech as a learned skill.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 39, 396–411.
Bork, A. (1983). A preliminary taxonomy of ways of displaying text on screens.Information Design Journal, 3(3), 206–214.
Bruce, M., & Foster, J. J. (1982). The visibility of colored characters on colored backgrounds in Viewdata displays.Visible Language, XVI, 382–390.
Campbell, A. J., Marchetti, F. M., & Mewhort, D. J. K. (1981). Reading speed and text production: A note on right-justification techniques.Ergonomics, 24, 611–622.
Christ, R. E. (1975). Review and analysis of color coding research for visual displays.Human Factors, 17, 542–578.
Christ, R. E. (1984). Research for evaluating visual display codes: An emphasis on color coding. In R. Easterby & H. Zwaga (Eds.),Information Design. Chichester, U. K.: Wiley.
Christensen, C. M., & Stordahl, K. E. (1955). The effect of organisational aids on comprehension and retention.Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 65–74.
Cocklin, T. G., Ward, N. J., Chen, H., & Suola, J. F. (1984). Factors influencing readability of rapidly presented text segments.Memory and Cognition, 12(5), 431–442.
Cushman, W. H. (1986). Reading from microfiche, a VDT and the printed page: Subjective fatigue and performance.Human Factors, 28(1), 63–73.
De Corte, W. (1986). Optimal colors, phosphours, and illuminant characteristics for CRT displays: The algorithmic approach.Human Factors, 28(1) 39–47.
Dreyfus, J. (1985). A turning point in type design.Visible Language, XIX(1), 11–22.
Duchnicky, R. L., & Kolers, P. A. (1983). Readability of text scrolled on visual display terminals as a function of window size.Human Factors, 25(6), 683–692.
Dwyer, R. M. (1978).Strategies for improving visual learning. State College, PA: Learning Services.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (1977). Rudiments of numeracy.Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 140, 227–297.
Elkerton, J., & Williges, R. C. (1984). Infomation retrieval strategies in a file search environment.Human Factors, 26(2), 171–184.
Follettie, J. F. (1978). Research on table-using tasks. Series 2 Studies. (Report TN 2-78-04). Los Alamitos, CA: Southwest Regional Laboratory.
Foster, J. J. (1979). The use of visual cues in text. In P. Kolers, M. E. Wrolstad, & H. Bouma (Eds.),Processing of visible language. New York: Plenum.
Foster, J. J., & Bruce, M. (1982). Looking for entries in videotex tables: A comparison of four color formats.Journal of Applied Psychology, 67(5), 611–615.
Frase, L. T., Macdonald, N. H., & Keenan, S. A. (1985). Intuitions, algorithms and a science of text design. In T. Duffy & R. W. Waller (Eds.),Designing usable texts. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Frase, L. T., & Schwartz, B. J. (1979). Typographic cues that facilitate comprehension.Journal of Educational Psychology, 71(2), 197–206.
Galitz, W. O. (1981).Handbook of screen format design. Wellesley, MA: QED Information Sciences.
Gould, J. D., & Grischkowsky, N. (1984). Doing the same work with hard copy and with cathode-ray tube (CRT) computer terminals.Human Factors, 26(3), 323–337.
Grabinger, R. S. (1984, Spring). CRT text design: Psychological attributes underlying the evaluation of models of CRT text displays.Journal of Visual Verbal Languaging, pp. 17–39.
Grabinger, R. S. (1985).Relationships among text format variables in computer-generated text. Paper presented to the Annual Conference, AECT, Las Vegas, NV, 1985. (Copies available from the author at 118, Henzlik Hall, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588)
Granaas, M. M., McKay, T. D., Laham, D., & Hurt, L. (1984). Reading moving text on a CRT screen.Human Factors, 26 (1), 97–104.
Gregory, M., & Poulton, E. C. (1970). Even versus uneven right-hand margins and rate of comprehension in reading.Ergonomics, 13, 427–434.
Haas, C., & Hayes, J. R. (1985a).Effects of text display variables on reading tasks: Computer screen versus hard copy (CDC Technical Report No. 3). Pittsburgh: Communications Design Center, Carnegie Mellon University.
Haas, C., & Hayes, J. R. (1985b).Reading on the computer: A comparison of standard and advanced computer display and hard copy (CDC Technical Report No. 7). Pittsburgh: Communications Design Center, Carnegie Mellon University.
Harding, R. D. (1986).Fourier series and transitions: A computer illustrated text. London: Hilger.
Hartley, J. (1980). Spatial cues in text: Some comments on the paper by Frase and Schwartz (1979).Visible Language, XIV(1), 62–79.
Hartley, J. (1982). Student preferences in typography.Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 19(2), 166–170.
Hartley, J. (1985).Designing instructional text (2nd ed.). New York: Nichols.
Hartley, J. (1986). Planning the typographical structure of instructional text.Educational Psychologist, 21(4), 315–332.
Hartley, J., & Burnhill, P. (1971). Experiments with unjustified text.Visible Language, V(3), 265–278.
Hartley, J., & Rooum, D. (1983). Sir Cyril Burt and typography.British Journal of Psychology, 74(2), 203–212.
Hartley, J., Young, M., & Burnhill, P. (1975). On the typing of tables.Applied Ergonomics, 6, 39–42.
Heines, J. (1984).Screen design strategies for computer assisted instruction. Bedford, MA: Digital Press.
Henney, M. (1981). The effect of all-capital print versus regular mixed print as displayed on a micro-computer screen on reading speed and accuracy.Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 31(2), p. 126 (Abstract).
Hershberger, W. A., & Terry, D. F. (1965). Typographical cueing in conventional and programmed texts.Journal of Applied Psychology, 49(1), 55–60.
Hutchingson, R. D., Williams, R. D., Reid, T. G., & Dudek, C. L. (1981). Formatting, message load, sequencing method and presentation rate for computer generated displays.Human factors, 23(5), 551–559.
Jandreau, S. M., Muncer, S. J., & Bever, T. G. (1986). Improving the readability of text with automatic phrase-sensitive formatting.British Journal of Educational Technology, 17(2), 128–133.
Jaspert, W. P., Berry, W. T., & Johnson, A. F. (1970).The encyclopaedia of typefaces. London: Blandford.
Keenan, S. A. (1984). Effects of chunking and line-length on reading efficiency.Visible Language, XVIII(1), 61–80.
Kerr, S. T. (1986). Learning to use electronic text: An agenda for research on typography, graphics and interpanel navigation.Information Design Journal, 4(3), 206–211.
Kinney, G. C., & Showman, D. J. (1967). The relative legibility of upper-case and lower-case typewritten words.Information Display, 4, 34–39.
Kolers, P. A., Duchnicky, R. L., & Ferguson, D. C. (1981). Eyemovement measurement of readability of CRT displays.Human Factors, 23, 517–528.
Kruk, R. S., & Muter, P. (1984). Reading continuous text on video screens.Human Factors, 26, 339–345.
Lee, E., Whalen, T., McEwen, S., & Latremouille, S. (1984). Optimising the design of menu pages for information retrieval.Ergonomics, 27(10), 1051–1069.
Lorch, R. F., & Chen, A. H. (1986). Effects of number signals on reading and recall.Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(4), 263–270.
Macdonald, N. J. (1983). The unix writer's workbench software: Rationale and design.The Bell System Technical Journal, 62(6), 1891–1908.
Macdonald-Ross, M. (1977a). How numbers are shown: A review of research on the presentation of quantitative data in texts.Audiovisual Communication Review, 25, 359–409.
Macdonald-Ross, M. (1977b). Graphics in text. In L. S. Shulman (Ed.),Review of research in education (Vol. 5). Itasca, IL: Peacock.
Maddox, M. E., Burnette, J. T., & Gutmann, J. C. (1977). Font comparisons for 5×7 dot matrix characters.Human Factors, 19(1), 89–93.
Mason, J. M., & Kendall, J. R. (1979). Facilitating reading comprehension through text structure manipulation.Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 25, 68–76.
Merrill, P. F. (1982). Displaying text on microcomputers. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.),The technology of text. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Meyer, B. J. F. (1985). Signaling the structure of text. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.),The technology of text (Vol. 2). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Muncer, S. J., Gorman, B. S., Gorman, S., & Bibel, D. (1986). Right is wrong: An examination of the effect of right justification on reading.British Journal of Educational Technology, 17(1), 5–10.
Norrish, P. (1984). Moving tables from paper to screen.Visible Language, XVIII(2), 154–170.
Norrish, P. (1986).The graphic translatability of text. (R & D Report No. 5854). London: The British Library.
Parkinson, S. R., Sisson, N., & Snowberry, K. (1985). Organisation of broad computer menu displays.International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 23(6), 689–697.
Poggenpohl, S. (Ed.), (1985). Graphic design: Computer graphics [Special issue].Visible Language,XIX(2), 173–306.
Poulton, E. C. (1960). A note on printing to make comprehension easier.Ergonomics, 3, 245–248.
Poulton, E. C. (1985). Geometric illusions in reading graphs.Perception and Psychophysics, 37, 543–548.
Poulton, E. C., & Brown, C. H. (1968). Rate of comprehension of an existing teleprinter output and of possible alternatives.Applied Psychology, 52, 16–21.
Pullinger, D. J. (1984). The design and presentation of the computer human factors journal in the Blend system.Visible Language, XVIII(2), 171–185.
Reed, S. K. (1986). Effect of computer graphics on improving estimates to algebra word problems.Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(3), 285–298.
Reinking, D., & Schreiner, R. (1985). The effects of computer mediated text on measures of comprehension and reading behavior.Reading Research Quarterly, XX(5), 536–552.
Reynolds, L. (1980). Teletext and viewdata—a new challenge for the designer. In J. Hartley (Ed.),The psychology of written communication: Selected readings. New York: Nichols.
Reynolds, L. (1982). Display problems for teletext. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.),The technology of text. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Riding, R. S., & Tite, H. C. (1985). The use of computer graphics to facilitate story-telling in young children.Educational Studies, 11(3), 203–209.
Riley, T. M., & Barbato, G. J. (1978). Dot-matrix alphanumerics viewed under discrete element degradation.Human Factors, 20(4), 473–479.
Roske-Hofstrand, J. R., & Paap, K. R. (1986). Cognitive networks as a guide to menu organisation: An application in the automated cockpit.Ergonomics, 29(11), 1301–1311.
Rubin, M. M. (1985). Spatial context as an aid to page layout: A system for planning and sketching.Visible Language, XIX(2), 243–250.
Shackel, B. (1983). The BLEND system-programme for the study of some electronic journals.Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 34(1), 22–30.
Shebilske, W. L, & Rotondo, J. A. (1981). Typographical and spatial cues that facilitate learning from textbooks.Visible Language, XV(1), 41–54.
Sless, D. (1984). Visual literacy: A failed opportunity.Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 32(4), 224–228.
Snyder, H. L., & Taylor, G. B. (1979). The sensitivity of response measures of alphanumeric legibility to variation in dot matrix display parameters.Human Factors, 21(4), 457–471.
Southall, R. (1981). Character generator systems for broadcast television.Information Design Journal, 2(1), 44–57.
Spiker, A., Rogers, S. P., Cincinelli, J. (1986). Selecting colour codes for a computer generated topographic map based on perception experiments and functional requirements.Ergonomics, 29(11), 1313–1320.
Stone, J. (1981). The effect of the format and the number of arguments on comprehension of text by college undergraduates. In L. J. Chapman (Ed.),The reader and the text. London: Heinemann.
Stone, V. L. (1983). Effects of color in filmed behavior sequences on descriptions and elaboration by Liberian schoolboys.Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 21(1), 33–45.
Tedford, W. H., Berquist, S. L., & Flynn, W. E. (1977). The size-colorillusion.Journal of General Psychology, 97(1), 145–149.
Tinker, M. A. (1965).Bases for effective reading. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Tufte, E. R. (1983).The visual display of quantitative information. Graphics Press, Box 430, Cheshire, CT 06410.
Tukey, J. W. (1977).Exploratory data analysis. New York: Addison-Wesley.
Tullis, T. S. (1983). The formatting of alphanumeric displays: A review and analysis.Human Factors, 25(6), 657–682.
Twyman, M. (1981). Typography without words.Visible Language, XV(1), 5–12.
Waller, R. H. W., Lefrere, P., & Macdonald-Ross, M. (1982). Do you need that second color?IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, Vol. PC-25(2), 80–85.
Watts, L., & Nisbet, J. (1974).Legibility in children's books. London: National Foundation for Educational Research.
Weldon, L. S., Mills, C. B., Koved, L., & Shneiderman, B. (1985). The structure of information in online and paper technical manuals. In R. W. Swezey (Ed.),Proceedings of the Human Factors, 29th Annual Meeting (Vol. 2). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors Society.
Whalley, P., & Fleming, R. (1975). An experiment with a simple recorder of reading behavior.Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 12, 120–124.
Wilkins, A. J. (1984).Visual illusions, eye-strain, headaches and epilepsy. Paper to the Annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, September 1984. (Copies available from the author, MRC Applied Psychology Unit, 15, Chaucer Road, Cambridge, CB2 2EF, U.K.).
Winn, W. (1987). Using charts, graphs and diagrams in educational materials. In D. M. Willows and H. A. Houghton (Eds.),The psychology of illustration: Vol. 1. Basic research. New York: Springer Verlag.
Winn, W. D., & Holliday, W. G. (1982). Design principles for diagrams and charts. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.),The technology of text. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Wright, P. (1980). The comprehension of tabulated information: Some similarities between reading prose and reading tables.NSPI Journal, XIX(8), 25–29.
Wright, P. (1982). A user-oriented approach to the design of tables and flowcharts. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.),The technology of text. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hartley, J. Designing electronic text: The role of print-based research. ECTJ 35, 3–17 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02769448
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02769448