Skip to main content
Log in

Girls and mathematics —A “hopeless” issue? A control-value approach to gender differences in emotions towards mathematics

  • Published:
European Journal of Psychology of Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study analyzed gender differences in achievement emotions in the domain of mathematics. Based on Pekrun’s (2000, 2006) controlvalue theory of achievement emotions, we hypothesized that there are gender differences in mathematics emotions due to the students’ different levels of control and value beliefs in mathematics, even when controlling for prior achievement. The structural relationships between prior achievement, control and value beliefs, and emotions were assumed to be invariant across girls and boys in spite of hypothesized mean level differences of beliefs and emotions across genders. The emotions and beliefs of 1,036 male and 1,017 female 5th grade students were assessed by self-report measures, and their prior mathematics achievement was assessed by academic grades. Even though girls and boys had received similar grades in mathematics, girls reported significantly less enjoyment and pride than boys, but more anxiety, hopelessness and shame. Findings suggested that the female emotional pattern was due to the girls’ low competence beliefs and domain value of mathematics, combined with their high subjective values of achievement in mathematics. Multiple-group comparisons confirmed that the structural relationships between variables were largely invariant across the genders.

Résumé

Cette étude porte sur les différences de genre en ce qui a trait aux “émotions mathématiques”. S’appuyant sur la théorie émotionnelle des buts d’accomplissement (“control-value theory of achievement emotions”) de Pekrun (2000, 2006), nous postulons la présence d’une différence de genre en ce qui a trait aux émotions mathématiques qui serait expliquée par les différents niveaux de perception de contrôle et de perception de valeur, spécifiques au domaine des mathématiques, présentés par les élèves. Nous avons posé comme hypothèse la présence de cette différence même une fois l’accomplissement antérieur pris en considération. En dépit des différences de moyennes de niveaux anticipées à travers des genres en ce qui a trait aux perception de contrôle et de valeur ainsi qu’aux émotions, nous avons présupposé que les rapports structur aux entre l’accomplissement antérieur, les perception de contrôle et de valeur et les émotions demeureraient invariants à travers des garçons et des filles. 1036 garçons et 1017 filles de cinquième année ont participé à l’étude. Leurs émotions, leurs perceptions de contrôle et leurs sentiments de valeur furent évalués à l’aide de questionnaires d’auto-évaluation et leur accomplissement antérieur en mathématiques fut mesuré à partir de leurs résultats académiques. Malgré le fait que les écolières et les écoliers avaient rećcu des résultats équivalents en mathématiques, les filles ont affirmé ressentir de manière significative moins de joie et de fierté que les garçons, ainsi que plus d’anxiété, de désespérance et de honte. Les résultats suggèrent que le pattern émotionnel féminin s’explique par les niveaux peu élevés du perception de contrôle et du perception d’importance accordé au domaine, ceci associé au haut niveau du perception d’accomplissement. Les comparaisons multigroupes confirment en grande partie l’invariance, à travers des genres, des rapports structuraux entre les variables.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abela, J.R.Z., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2000). The hopelessness theory of depression: A test of the diathesis-stress component in the interpersonal and achievement domains.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 361–378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ainley, M., Corrigan, M., & Richardson, N. (2005). Students, tasks and emotions: Identifying the contribution of emotions to students’ reading of popular culture and popular science texts.Learning and Instruction, 15, 433–447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J.L. (2003).Amos 5 [Computer Software]. Chicago, IL: SmallWatersInc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashby, F.G., Isen, A.M., & Turken, A.U. (1999). A neuropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition.Psychological Review, 106, 529–550.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashcraft, M.H. (2002). Math anxiety: Personal, educational, and cognitive consequences.Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 181–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1997).Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceputal, strategic, and statistical considerations.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barrett, L.F., Robin, L., Pietromonaco, P., & Eyssell, K. (1998). Are women the over emotional sex? Evidence from emotional experiences in social context.Cognition and Emotion, 12, 555–578.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blier, M.J., & Blier-Wilson, L.A. (1989). Gender differences in self-rated emotional expressiveness.Sex Roles, 21, 287–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, L.R. (1985). Gender differences in emotional development: A review of theories and research.Journal of Personality, 53, 102–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brush, L.R. (1985). Cognitive and affective determinants of course preferences and plans. In S.F. Chipman, L.R. Brush, & D.M. Wilson (Eds.),Women and mathematics balancing the equation (pp. 123–150). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, F.B., Yarnold, P.R., & Grimm, L.G. (1996). Towards a measurement model of the affect intensity measure: A three-factor structure.Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 233–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988).Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Covington, M.V. (1984). The motive for self-worth. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.),Research on motivation in education (vol. 1, pp. 77–113). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, P.G., & Spencer, S.J. (2005). Women’s understanding in quantitative domains through the lens of stereotype threat. In A.M. Gallagher & J.C. Kaufman (Eds.),Gender differences in mathematics (pp. 172–188). Cambridge: University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being.American Psychologist, 55(1), 34–43

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J.S. (1987). Gender roles and women’s achievement-related decisions.Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 135–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J.S., Wigfield, A., & Schiefele, U. (1997). Motivation to succeed. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) and N. Eisenberg (Ed.),Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (5th ed., vol. 3, pp. 1017–1095). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J., Adler, T.F., Futtermann, R., Goff, S.B., Kaczala, C.M., Meece, J.L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J.T. Spence (Ed.),Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Efklides, A., & Volet, S. (2005). Emotional experiences during learning: Multiple, situated and dynamic [Special Issue].Learning and Instruction, 15.

  • Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. (1995). Children’s disclosure of vicariously induced emotions. In K.J. Rotenberg (Ed.),Disclosure processes in children and adolescents (pp. 111–134). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fennema, E., & Sherman, J. (1977). Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement, spatial visualization and affective factors.American Educational Research Journal, 14, 51–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fennema, E., & Sherman, J. (1978). Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement, spatial visualization and affective factors: A further study.Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 9, 189–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forgasz, H.J., Leder, G.C., & Kloosterman, P. (2004). New Perspectives on the gender stereotyping of mathematics.Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 6, 389–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, A.M., & Kaufman, J.C. (2005).Gender differences in mathematics: An integrative psychological approach. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goetz, T., Frenzel, A.C., Hall, N.C., & Pekrun, R. (in press). Antecedents of academic emotions: Testing the Internal/Extemal Frame of Reference Model for academic enjoyment.Contemporary Educational Psychology.

  • Grossman, M., & Wood, W. (1993). Sex differences in intensity of emotional experience: A social role interpretation.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1010–1022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harackiewitz, J.M., Barron, K.E., Tauer, J.M., Carter, S.M., & Elliot, A.J. (2000). Short-term and long-term consequences of achievement goals: Predicting interest and performance over time.Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 316–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hembree, R. (1988). Correlates, causes, effects and treatment of test anxiety.Review of Educational Research, 58, 47–77

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J.S., Fennema, E., & Lamon, S.J. (1990). Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis.Psychological Bulletin, 107, 139–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J.S., Fennema, E., Ryan, M., Frost, L.A., & Hopp, C. (1990). Gender comparisons of mathematics attitudes and affect: A meta-analysis.Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 299–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A.M. (1999). Positive affect. In T. Dalgleish & M. Power (Eds.),Handbook of cognition and emotion (pp. 521–539). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, D.A., Kashy, D.A., & Bolger, N. (1998). Data analysis in social psychology. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.),Handbook of social psychology (vol. 1, pp. 233–265). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krapp, A. (2005). Basic needs and the development of interest and intrinsic motivational orientations.Learning and Instruction, 15, 381–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, R.J., & Diener, E. (1987). Affect intensity as individual difference characteristic: A review.Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 1–39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leahey, E., & Guo G. (2001). Gender differences in mathematical trajectories.Social Forces, 80, 713–732.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linn, M.C., & Hyde, J.S. (1989). Gender, mathematics, and science.Educational Researcher, 18, 17–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linnenbrink, E.A. (Ed.). (2006). Emotion research in education: Theoretical and methodological perspectives on the integration of affect, motivation, and cognition [Special Issue].Educational Psychology Review, 18.

  • Lupart, J.L., Cannon, E., & Telfer, J.O. (2004). Gender differences in adolescent academic achievement, interests, values, and life-role expectations.High Ability Studies, 15, 25–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, X. (1999). A meta-analysis of the relationship between anxiety toward mathematics and achievement in mathematics.Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 30, 520–540.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H.W., Balla, J.R., & McDonald, R.P. (1988). Goodness-of-fit in dexes in confirmatory factor analysis: The effect of sample size.Psychological Bulletin, 103, 391–410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meece, J.L., Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J.S. (1990). Predictors of math anxiety and its influence on young adolescents’ course enrollment intentions and performance in mathematics.Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 60–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meinhardt, J., & Pekrun, R. (2003). Attentional resource allocation to emotional events: An ERP study.Cognition and Emotion, 17, 477–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, M.R., & Koehler, M.S. (1990). Internal influences on gender differences in mathematics. In E. Fennema & G.C. Leder (Eds.),Mathematics and gender (pp. 60–95). New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mullis, I.V.S., Martin, M.O., Fierros, E.G., Goldberg, A.L., & Stemler, S.E. (2000).Gender differences in achievement: IEA’s Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston.

  • Nicholls, J.G. (1990). What is ability and why are we mindful of it? A developmental perspective. In R.J. Sternberg & J. Kolligian (Eds.),Competence considered (pp. 11–40). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2004a).Learning for tomorrow’s world: First results from PISA 2003. Paris, France: OECD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2004b).Education at a glance. Paris, France: OECD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R. (1992). Expectancy-value theory of anxiety: Overview and implications. In D.G. Forgays, T. Sosnowski, & K. Wresniewski (Eds.),Anxiety: Recent developments in cognitive, psychophsysiological and health research (pp. 23–41). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R. (2000). A social cognitive, control-value theory of achievement emotions. In J. Heckhausen (Ed.),Motivational psychology of human development (pp. 143–163). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: Assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice.Educational Psychology Review, 18, 315–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., & Frenzel, A.C. (2005).Academic Emotions Questionnaire — Mathematics (AEQ-M) — User’s Manual. University of Munich: Department of Psychology.

  • Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., & Perry, R.P. (2005).Academic Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ) — User’s Manual. University of Munich: Department of Psychology.

  • Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., & Perry, R.P. (2002). Academic emotions in students’ self-regulated learning and achievement: A program of quantitative and qualitative research.Educational Psychologist, 37, 91–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scherer, K.R. (1999). Appraisal Theory. In T. Dagleish & M. Power (Eds.),Handbook of cognition and emotion (pp. 637–664). John Wiley, Chichester.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Scherer, K.R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (Eds.). (2001).Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schutz, P.A., & Lanehart, S.L. (Eds.). (2002). Emotions in Education [Special Issue].Educational Psychologist, 37.

  • Schutz, P.A., & Pekrun, R. (Eds.). (2007).Emotions in education. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seegers, G., & Boekaerts, M. (1996). Gender-related differences in self-referenced cognitions in relation to mathematics.Journal for Research in Mathematical Education, 27, 215–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stipek, D.J., & Gralinsky, J.H. (1991). Gender differences in children’s achievement-related beliefs and emotional responses to success and failure in mathematics.Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 361–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tangney, J.P. (1990). Assessing individual differences in proneness to shame and guilt: Development of the Self-Conscious Affect and Attribution Inventory.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 102–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J.E., & Schallert, D.L. (2001). Expectancy-value relationships of shame reactions and shame resiliency.Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 320–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion.Psychological Review, 92, 548–573

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, B. (1994). Integrating social and personal theories of achievement striving.Review of Educational Research, 64, 557–573.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wigfield, A., & Meece, J.L. (1988). Math anxiety in elementary and secondary school students.Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 210–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wigfield, A., Battle, A., Keller, L.B., & Eccles, J.S. (2002). Sex differences in motivation, self concept, career aspiration, and career choice: implications for cognitive development. In A. McGillicuddy-De Lisi & R. De Lisi (Eds.),Biology, society, and behavior: The development of sex differences in cognition (pp. 93–124). Westport, CT: Ablex.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wigfield, A., Eccles, J.S., Suk Yoon, K., Harold, R.D., Arbreton, A.J.A., Freedman-Doan, C., & Blumenfeld, P.C. (1997). Change in children’s competence beliefs and subjective task values across the elementary school years: A 3-year study.Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 451–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeidner, M. (1998).Test anxiety: State of the art. New York: Plenum

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeidner, M., & Safir, M.P. (1989). Sex, ethnic, and social differences in test anxiety among Israeli adolescents.Journal of Genetic Psychology, 150, 175–185.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Additional information

This research was funded by a grant from the German Research Foundation (PE 320/11-1) awarded to the second author.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Frenzel, A.C., Pekrun, R. & Goetz, T. Girls and mathematics —A “hopeless” issue? A control-value approach to gender differences in emotions towards mathematics. Eur J Psychol Educ 22, 497 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173468

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173468

Key words

Navigation