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The faint radio sky: radio astronomy becomes mainstream

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The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review Aims and scope

Abstract

Radio astronomy has changed. For years it studied relatively rare sources, which emit mostly non-thermal radiation across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. radio quasars and radio galaxies. Now, it is reaching such faint flux densities that it detects mainly star-forming galaxies and the more common radio-quiet active galactic nuclei. These sources make up the bulk of the extragalactic sky, which has been studied for decades in the infrared, optical, and X-ray bands. I follow the transformation of radio astronomy by reviewing the main components of the radio sky at the bright and faint ends, the issue of their proper classification, their number counts, luminosity functions, and evolution. The overall “big picture” astrophysical implications of these results, and their relevance for a number of hot topics in extragalactic astronomy, are also discussed. The future prospects of the faint radio sky are very bright, as we will soon be flooded with survey data. This review should be useful to all extragalactic astronomers, irrespective of their favourite electromagnetic band(s), and even stellar astronomers might find it somewhat gratifying.

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Notes

  1. The standard flux density unit in radio astronomy is the Jansky (Jy), which is equivalent to \(10^{-23}\) erg \(\hbox {cm}^{-2}\) \(\hbox {s}^{-1}\) Hz\(^{-1}\). By today’s standards, strong radio sources have \(S_\mathrm{r} \gtrsim 1\) Jy, intermediate ones have 1 mJy \(\lesssim S_\mathrm{r} \lesssim 1\) Jy, while weak radio sources are below the mJy (soon \(\mu \)Jy) level.

  2. There was obviously no way I could mention all papers dealing with the many topics related to this review, which have appeared in the literature. I have, therefore, had to make choices and often resorted to the sentence “and references therein”. Moreover, I here deal exclusively with extragalactic sources; see, e.g. Sect. 3.8 of Norris et al. (2013) for a discussion of radio surveys of the Galactic plane.

  3. In this review, I use W Hz\(^{-1}\), i.e. power per unit frequency, which is commonly used in radio astronomy. It can be converted to erg \(\hbox {s}^{-1}\) at 1.4 GHz (\(\nu P_{\nu }\)), for example, by multiplying by \(1.4 \times 10^{16}\).

  4. The ratio between the observed luminosity and the Eddington luminosity, \(L_\mathrm{Edd} = 1.3 \times 10^{46}~(M/10^8 \mathrm M_{\odot })\) erg/s, where \(\mathrm M_{\odot }\) is one solar mass. This is the maximum luminosity a body can achieve when there is balance between radiation pressure (on the electrons) and gravitational force (on the protons).

  5. Most of the so-called “quasi-stellar galaxies” described by Sandage (1965) actually turned out to be stars (e.g. Kellermann 2015), but the concept of radio-quiet quasars (i.e. the existence of quasars with much weaker radio emission) proved to be correct.

  6. The words in italics highlight the presence of a thermal component (the UV bump, due to the accretion disk) in RL quasars and of a hot corona (producing the hard X-ray power law, due to inverse Compton of the optical/UV photons by high-energy electrons close to the disk) in RQ ones.

  7. At least based on current technology. One cannot exclude a scenario where, for example, the \(\gamma \)-ray flux in RQ AGN scales with \(S_\mathrm{r}\) and, therefore, is \(\approx 1000\) times fainter than that of the RL sources detected by Fermi. Based on the relative numbers of RQ and RL AGN estimated in Table 1 of Padovani (2011), the RQ AGN contribution to the \(\gamma \)-ray background in this case might be non-negligible, which would rule out this scenario, as there is no room left for other populations either than blazars, at least above 10 GeV (e.g. Giommi and Padovani 2015).

  8. It is generally understood that the distinction at \(M_\mathrm{B} \sim -23\) used in the past to separate quasars and Seyferts, or stellar and non-stellar (i.e. extended) sources, is not a physical one. In this review, I simply consider Seyfert 1’s to be lower luminosity versions of quasars. Nevertheless, this absolute magnitude might still be useful to roughly separate AGN fainter and brighter than the brightest galaxies (e.g. Condon et al. 2013).

  9. This name was first used by Ghisellini (2010).

  10. This equation differs from Eq. 11 in Zotti et al. (2010) by a factor \(1/f_\mathrm{L}(z)\), since they define their LFs as \(\varPhi (\mathrm log P\)); see Sect. 5.4.

  11. In terms of cosmic time, rather than redshift, it should be the other way around. Nevertheless, this is how these terms are generally used.

  12. These can be simply derived under the assumption of a uniform distribution of sources and Euclidean space since the number of sources is \(\propto D^3 \equiv (L/4\pi S)^{3/2}\). The integral counts, that is the number of objects seen on the sky with flux density \(>S\), will then be \(n(\ge S) \propto S^{-3/2}\), which translates into differential counts \(n(S) \propto S^{-5/2}\).

  13. This value depends on the LF, the assumed evolution, and on the redshift at which evolution stops.

  14. This is true only for the Euclidean normalized counts: the differential counts actually steepen.

  15. The subject of the “proper” estimation of radio number counts is a very complicated one, fraught with many issues, which go beyond the main scope (and length) of this review (see, for example, Condon et al. 2012; Hales et al. 2014a; Padovani et al. 2015a). Here, I briefly touch upon it.

  16. This is the uncertainty in observational estimates of extragalactic objects arising from the underlying large-scale density fluctuations, which is often significant, especially in deep surveys, which tend to cover relatively small areas.

  17. The interested reader can find a detailed account of this controversy in Sullivan (1984).

  18. In those early days, radio sources were named after the constellation in which they appeared followed by a letter. Thus, Taurus A was the first object discovered in the Taurus constellation.

  19. The local maximum powers are from Best et al. (2014) (radiative- and jet-mode RL AGN), Padovani et al. (2015a) (RQ AGN), and Mauch and Sadler (2007) (SFGs). The values at \(z \sim 3\) have been estimated using luminosity evolution models from Urry and Padovani (1995), Padovani et al. (2015a), and Padovani et al., in preparation

  20. The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) can also determine redshifts of, for example, SFGs through their molecular emission lines at millimetre wavelengths (e.g. Weiß et al. 2013).

  21. I though that for modern radio surveys things have become more complex than they used to be but after chatting with Robert Laing, who played a big role in the optical identification of the 3CRR (Laing et al. 1983), I am not so sure!

  22. What follows below is an evolved and expanded version of Sect. 3 of Bonzini et al. (2013). The ranking order was mainly determined by looking at how many sources had their classification changed by a given indicator after the first three were applied to the E-CDFS sample.

  23. Blazar cores are also polarized, but blazars are relatively rare in the faint radio sky.

  24. I have made this sound easy but reality is, as usual, more complex. The reader should consult Sect. 3 of Bonzini et al. (2013) to get a feeling for the many subtleties and possible complications. In particular, not all radio sources are X-ray detected even in the deepest fields.

  25. Nowadays, the images corresponding to a few individual pointings are typically combined to form a mosaic image so this is less of an issue (e.g. Miller et al. 2013). Still, it needs to be taken into account.

  26. I stress that I have not picked the E-CDFS sample to put together Figs. 7 and 8 (and Fig. 9) because this is my own survey. After Sect. 2.3 and Fig. 5, in fact, one should expect the presence of RQ AGN in radio surveys, but the only radio counts I know of which include all classes of astrophysical sources, which make up the faint radio sky are those published by our group (Padovani et al. 2009, 2011, 2015a). Having a deep, sizeable radio sample, which is almost completely identified and where most of the sources have a redshift (spectroscopic or photometric), is not easy. But the real reason, I think, has to do with X-ray data: as shown in Table 1 the best indicator of RQ AGN is X-ray power (i.e. once RL AGN are singled out using the FIR–radio correlation, RQ ones are easily identified through their \(L_\mathrm{x}\)). For that one needs very deep X-ray data in a region of the sky where there are very deep radio data as well: and this means the E-CDFS, which at present reaches \(f_\mathrm{0.5 - 2\,keV} \sim 5 \times 10^{-18}\) erg \(\hbox {cm}^{-2}\) s\(^{-1}\) (Lehmer et al. 2012). Note that we still do not detect all radio sources in the X-ray band but \({\sim }60\%\) in the central region (Vattakunnel et al. 2012).

  27. \(P \times \varPhi (P) = 2.5/ln(10) \times \varPhi (M) \sim 1.09 \times \varPhi (M)\), where the units of \(\varPhi (M)\) are mag\(^{-1}\) volume\(^{-1}\). Note that these units are also sometimes used in the radio band: e.g. Condon (1989), Sadler et al. (2002), Mauch and Sadler (2007). The conversion, instead, to units of Mpc\(^{-3}\) dex\(^{-1}\) used, for example, by Simpson et al. (2012), is done by dividing my values by \(10^9/\mathrm{ln(10)}\). The \(P \times \varPhi (P)\) form allows an easy separation of luminosity and density evolution as the former simply translates the LF to higher powers with no change in number, while the opposite is true for the latter.

  28. They note that a solid interpretation of the time dependence of the SFRD from first principles is still missing (e.g. Mac Low 2013).

  29. The blazar community has been aware of the likely negative evolution of a sub-class of BL Lacs for quite some time: see Giommi et al. (2012) and references therein.

  30. This is a very active field with many papers published on the subject in the past few years: see, e.g. Madau and Dickinson (2014), Somerville and Davé (2015) and references therein.

  31. The E-CDFS RQ AGN have been selected mostly based on them falling within the SFG locus in the \(q_\mathrm{24\mu m} - z\) plane (Bonzini et al. 2013). One could, therefore, argue that the correlation they follow in Fig. 10 is a consequence of the selection method. However, SFGs and RQ AGN have different MIR characteristics: SFGs, for example, have an average dispersion in \(q_\mathrm{24\mu m~obs} \sim 0.33\) dex, which is twice as small as that of RQ AGN. This is mainly due to the relatively large AGN contribution at MIR wavelengths in many RQ AGN. In other words, one can effectively use the MIR to discard RL AGN, but this band is not good enough to obtain a reliable estimate of the SFR, for which one needs the FIR (i.e. Herschel).

  32. With the exception of NGC 1068 and NGC 4945, two Seyfert 2 galaxies in which the \(\gamma \)-ray emission is thought to be related to their starburst component (Ackermann et al. 2012b).

  33. http://www.aoc.nrao.edu/~akimball/radiocat_2.0.shtml.

  34. Everything there is to know about the SKA can be found at http://www.skatelescope.org. I give here only a very brief description of the project.

  35. http://science.nrao.edu/facilities/vla.

  36. http://www.astron.nl/radio-observatory/astronomers/lofar-astronomers.

  37. http://www.astron.nl/general/apertif/apertif.

  38. http://www.atnf.csiro.au/projects/askap/.

  39. http://www.e-merlin.ac.uk.

  40. http://www.ska.ac.za/meerkat.

  41. The simulation is accessible at http://s-cubed.physics.ox.ac.uk/s3_sex.

  42. http://quasars.org/milliquas.htm.

  43. I performed both tasks in Padovani (2011), whose main results I summarize and update here. Needless to say, the sensitivities of future facilities are inherently uncertain, especially if the latter have not yet been approved for construction.

  44. http://www.lsst.org.

  45. http://www.stsci.edu/jwst/.

  46. These include, in order of decreasing diameter size, the European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT; http://www.eso.org/sci/facilities/eelt/), the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT; http://www.tmt.org/), and the Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT; http://www.gmto.org/).

  47. Available at https://www.skatelescope.org/books/.

  48. By saying “quasar” I refer here only to radiative-mode AGN

  49. I have discussed two of them in Padovani (2011) and summarize the main points here.

  50. At the time of writing (mid-2016) I have found 16 refereed papers with the words “jetted AGN” in their abstract.

Abbreviations

6dFGS:

6 Degree field galaxy survey

AGN:

Active galactic nuclei

ARCADE2:

Absolute radiometer for cosmology, astrophysics and diffuse emission

ALMA:

Atacama large millimeter/submillimeter array

BL Lacs:

BL Lacertae objects

CSS:

Compact steep-spectrum

E-CDFS:

Extended Chandra deep field south

E-ELT:

European extremely large telescope

ELT:

Extremely large telescope

EMU:

Evolutionary map of the universe

ESA:

European space agency

FIR:

Far-IR

FR:

Fanaroff–Riley

FSRQ:

Flat-spectrum radio quasar

FWHM:

Fullwidth half maximum

GMT:

Giant Magellan telescope

GOODS:

Great observatories origins deep survey

GPS:

GHz peaked-spectrum

HERG:

High-excitation radio galaxy

HUDF:

Hubble ultra deep field

IR:

Infrared

IRAC:

Infrared array camera

IRAS:

Infrared astronomical satellite

ISO:

Infrared space observatory

JVLA:

Karl G. Jansky very large array

JWST:

James Webb space telescope

Jy:

Jansky

LERG:

Low-excitation radio galaxy

LF :

Luminosity function

LOFAR :

Low frequency array

LSST :

Large synoptic survey telescope

MIR:

Mid-IR

NIR:

Near-IR

NRAO:

National radio astronomy observatory

NVSS:

NRAO VLA sky survey

PACS:

Photoconductor array camera and spectrometer

PDE:

Pure density evolution

PLE:

Pure luminosity evolution

R:

Radio-to-optical flux density ratio

RG:

Radio galaxy

RL:

Radio-loud

RQ:

Radio-quiet

SB:

Starburst galaxy

SED:

Spectral energy distribution

SDSS:

Sloan digital sky survey

SF:

Star formation

SFG:

Star-forming galaxy

SFR:

Star formation rate

SFRD:

Star formation rate density

SKA:

Square kilometre Array

SKADS:

SKA design study

S/N:

Signal-to-noise

SPICA:

Space infrared telescope for cosmology and astrophysics

SSRQ:

Steep-spectrum radio quasar

SUMSS:

Sydney university Molonglo sky survey

3CRR:

Third Cambridge catalogue of radio sources

TMT:

Thirty meter telescope

UV:

Ultraviolet

VLA:

Very large array

VLBI:

Very long baseline interferometry

WFIRST:

Wide-field InfraRed survey telescope

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Acknowledgments

I thank Roberto Assef, Angela Bongiorno, Alessandro Capetti, Renato Falomo, Lui-gina Feretti, Roberto Gilli, Paolo Giommi, Chris Hales, Evanthia Hatziminaoglou, Darshan Kakkad, Robert Laing, Vincenzo Mainieri, Arne Rau, Gordon Richards, an anonymous referee, and particularly Ken Kellermann, for helpful comments and discussions, and the rest of the E-CDFS team, especially Margherita Bonzini, Neal Miller, and Paolo Tozzi, for the work done together over the past few years. Isabella Prandoni kindly provided me with most of the data points in Fig. 4 and the simulated number counts from the SKADS. I also greatly benefited from the NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.

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    Paolo Padovani

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Padovani, P. The faint radio sky: radio astronomy becomes mainstream. Astron Astrophys Rev 24, 13 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00159-016-0098-6

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