Abstract
Eye movements that are dependent on cognition hold promise in assessing sports-related concussions but research on reliability of eye tracking measurements in athletic cohorts is very limited. This observational test–retest study aimed to establish whether eye tracking technology is a reliable tool for assessing sports-related concussions in youth and adult athletes partaking in contact and collision team sports. Forty-three youth (15.4 ± 2.2 years) and 27 adult (22.2 ± 2.9 years) Rugby Union and soccer players completed the study. Eye movements were recorded using SMIRED250mobile while participants completed a test battery twice, with a 1-week interval that included self-paced saccade (SPS), fixation stability, memory-guided sequence (MGS), smooth pursuit (SP), and antisaccades (AS) tasks. Intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC), measurement error (SEM) and smallest real difference (SRD) were calculated for 47 variables. Seventeen variables achieved an ICC > 0.50. In the adults, saccade count in SPS had good reliability (ICC = 0.86, SRD = 146.6 saccades). In the youth, the average blink duration in MGS had excellent reliability (ICC = 0.99, SRD = 59.4 ms); directional errors in AS tasks and gain of diagonal SP had good reliability (ICC = 0.78 and 0.77, SRD = 25.3 and 395.1%, respectively). Four metrics were found in this study to be reliable candidates for further biomarker validity research in contact and collision sport cohorts. Many variables failed to present a sufficient level of robustness for a practical diagnostic tool; possibly, because athletic cohorts have higher homogeneity, along with latent adverse effects of undetected concussions and repetitive head impacts. Since reliability of a measure can influence type II error, effect sizes, and confidence intervals, it is strongly advocated to conduct dedicated reliability evaluations prior to any validity studies.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and material (data transparency)
Full statistics are provided in Supplement Table 1; raw data available upon request from the corresponding author.
Code availability
Not applicable.
References
Abusharha AA (2017) Changes in blink rate and ocular symptoms during different reading tasks. Clin Optom 9:133–138. https://doi.org/10.2147/OPTO.S142718
Antoniades C, Ettinger U, Gaymard B, Gilchrist I, Kristjánsson A, Kennard C, John Leigh R, Noorani I, Pouget P, Smyrnis N, Tarnowski A, Zee DS, Carpenter RHS (2013) An internationally standardised antisaccade protocol. Vis Res 84:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2013.02.007
Arifin WN (2018) A web-based sample size calculator for reliability studies. Educ Med J 10(3):67–76. https://doi.org/10.21315/eimj2018.10.3.8
Baillargeon A, Lassonde M, Leclerc S, Ellemberg D (2012) Neuropsychological and neurophysiological assessment of sport concussion in children, adolescents and adults. Brain Inj 26(3):211–220. https://doi.org/10.3109/02699052.2012.654590
Balaban C, Hoffer ME, Szczupak M, Snapp H, Crawford J, Murphy S, Marshall K, Pelusso C, Knowles S, Kiderman A (2016) Oculomotor, vestibular, and reaction time tests in mild traumatic brain injury. PLoS ONE 11(9):e0162168. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162168
Bargary G, Bosten JM, Goodbourn PT, Lawrance-Owen AJ, Hogg RE, Mollon JD (2017) Individual differences in human eye movements: an oculomotor signature? Vis Res 141:157–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2017.03.001
Beckerman H, Roebroeck ME, Lankhorst GJ, Becher JG, Bezemer PD, Verbeek AL (2001) Smallest real difference, a link between reproducibility and responsiveness. Qual Life Res Int J Qual Life Asp Treat Care Rehabil 10(7):571–578
Belanger HG, Vanderploeg RD, McAllister TW (2016) Subconcussive blows to the head: a formative review of short-term clinical outcomes. J Head Trauma Rehabil 31(3):159–166. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000138
Berchicci M, Stella A, Pitzalis S, Spinelli D, Di Russo F (2012) Spatio-temporal mapping of motor preparation for self-paced saccades. Biol Psychol 90(1):10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.02.014
Binder LM, Iverson GL, Brooks BL (2009) To err is human: “abnormal” neuropsychological scores and variability are common in healthy adults. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 24(1):31–46. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acn001
Bonett DG (2002) Sample size requirements for estimating intraclass correlations with desired precision. Stat Med 21(9):1331–1335. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.1108
Carson N, Leach L, Murphy KJ (2018) A re-examination of Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) cutoff scores. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 33(2):379–388. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4756
Chen Y-H, Huang EY-K, Kuo T-T, Miller J, Chiang Y-H, Hoffer BJ (2017) Impact of traumatic brain injury on dopaminergic transmission. Cell Transplant 26(7):1156–1168. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963689717714105
Cicchetti DV (1994) Guidelines, criteria, and rules of thumb for evaluating normed and standardized assessment instruments in psychology. Psychol Assess 6(4):284–290. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.6.4.284
Cochrane GD, Christy JB, Almutairi A, Busettini C, Swanson MW, Weise KK (2019) Visuo-oculomotor function and reaction times in athletes with and without concussion. Optom vis Sci 96(4):256–265. https://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001364
Colzato LS, van den Wildenberg WPM, van Wouwe NC, Pannebakker MM, Hommel B (2009) Dopamine and inhibitory action control: evidence from spontaneous eye blink rates. Exp Brain Res 196(3):467–474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-009-1862-x
Conklin K, Pellicer-Sánchez A, Carrol G (2018) Eye-tracking: a guide for applied linguistics research. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Cronbach LJ (1951) Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika 16(3):297–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
Danna-Dos-Santos A, Mohapatra S, Santos M, Degani AM (2018) Long-term effects of mild traumatic brain injuries to oculomotor tracking performances and reaction times to simple environmental stimuli. Sci Rep. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-22825-5
Davis GA, Anderson V, Babl FE, Gioia GA, Giza CC, Meehan W, Moser RS, Purcell L, Schatz P, Schneider KJ, Takagi M, Yeates KO, Zemek R (2017) What is the difference in concussion management in children as compared with adults? A systematic review. Br J Sports Med 51(12):949–957. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-097415
DeMatteo C, McCauley D, Stazyk K, Harper J, Adamich J, Randall S, Missiuna C (2015) Post-concussion return to play and return to school guidelines for children and youth: a scoping methodology. Disabil Rehabil 37(12):1107–1112. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2014.952452
de Vet HCW, Terwee CB, Knol DL, Bouter LM (2006) When to use agreement versus reliability measures. J Clin Epidemiol 59(10):1033–1039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2005.10.015
DiCesare CA, Kiefer AW, Nalepka P, Myer GD (2017) Quantification and analysis of saccadic and smooth pursuit eye movements and fixations to detect oculomotor deficits. Behav Res Methods 49(1):258–266. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0693-x
Di Stasi LL, Renner R, Catena A, Cañas JJ, Velichkovsky BM, Pannasch S (2012) Towards a driver fatigue test based on the saccadic main sequence: a partial validation by subjective report data. Transp Res Part C Emerg Technol 21(1):122–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2011.07.002
Doughty MJ (2001) Consideration of three types of spontaneous eyeblink activity in normal humans: during reading and video display terminal use, in primary gaze, and while in conversation. Optom vis Sci off Publ Am Acad Optom 78(10):712–725
Drew AS, Langan J, Halterman C, Osternig LR, Chou L-S, van Donkelaar P (2007) Attentional disengagement dysfunction following mTBI assessed with the gap saccade task. Neurosci Lett 417(1):61–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2007.02.038
Farris-Trimble A, McMurray B (2013) Test-retest reliability of eye tracking in the visual world paradigm for the study of real-time spoken word recognition. J Speech Lang Hear Res 56(4):1328–1345. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2012/12-0145)
Fukushima K, Fukushima J, Warabi T, Barnes GR (2013) Cognitive processes involved in smooth pursuit eye movements: behavioral evidence, neural substrate and clinical correlation. Front Syst Neurosci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2013.00004
Giraudeau B, Mary JY (2001) Planning a reproducibility study: how many subjects and how many replicates per subject for an expected width of the 95 per cent confidence interval of the intraclass correlation coefficient. Stat Med 20(21):3205–3214. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.935
Giza CC, Hovda DA (2014) The new neurometabolic cascade of concussion. Neurosurgery 75(04):S24–S33. https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0000000000000505
Heitger MH, Jones RD, Macleod AD, Snell DL, Frampton CM, Anderson TJ (2009) Impaired eye movements in post-concussion syndrome indicate suboptimal brain function beyond the influence of depression, malingering or intellectual ability. Brain 132(10):2850–2870. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awp181
Holmqvist K, Nystrom M, Andersson R, Dewhurst R, Jarodzka H, van de Weijer J (2011) Eye tracking: a comprehensive guide to methods and measures (First published in paperback). Oxford University Press, Oxford
Howell DR, Brilliant AN, Master CL, Meehan WP (2018) Reliability of objective eye-tracking measures among healthy adolescent athletes. Clin J Sport Med. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0000000000000630
Hutton SB (2008) Cognitive control of saccadic eye movements. Brain Cogn 68(3):327–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.021
Hvelplund KT (2014) Eye tracking and the translation process: reflections on the analysis and interpretation of eye-tracking data. MonTI Monografías De Traducción e Interpretación. https://doi.org/10.6035/MonTI.2014.ne1.6
Iverson GL, Gardner AJ, Terry DP, Ponsford JL, Sills AK, Broshek DK, Solomon GS (2017) Predictors of clinical recovery from concussion: a systematic review. Br J Sports Med 51(12):941–948. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097729
Jenkins PO, De Simoni S, Bourke NJ, Fleminger J, Scott G, Towey DJ, Svensson W, Khan S, Patel M, Greenwood R, Cole JH, Sharp DJ (2018) Dopaminergic abnormalities following traumatic brain injury. Brain J Neurol 141(3):797–810. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awx357
Johnson BD, Zhang K, Hallett M, Slobounov SM (2015) Functional neuroimaging of acute oculomotor deficits in concussed athletes. Brain Imaging Behav 9(3):564–573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-014-9316-x
Jongkees BJ, Colzato LS (2016) Spontaneous eye blink rate as predictor of dopamine-related cognitive function—a review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 71:58–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.020
Karatekin C (2007) Eye tracking studies of normative and atypical development. Dev Rev 27(3):283–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2007.06.006
Karson CN, Burns RS, LeWitt PA, Foster NL, Newman RP (1984) Blink rates and disorders of movement. Neurology 34(5):677–677. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.34.5.677
Kaufman DR, Puckett MJ, Smith MJ, Wilson KS, Cheema R, Landers MR (2014) Test–retest reliability and responsiveness of gaze stability and dynamic visual acuity in high school and college football players. Phys Ther Sport 15(3):181–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ptsp.2013.10.002
Kitagawa M, Fukushima J, Tashiro K (1994) Relationship between antisaccades and the clinical symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 44(12):2285–2289
Kleineidam L, Frommann I, Ruhrmann S, Klosterkötter J, Brockhaus-Dumke A, Wölwer W, Gaebel W, Maier W, Wagner M, Ettinger U (2019) Antisaccade and prosaccade eye movements in individuals clinically at risk for psychosis: comparison with first-episode schizophrenia and prediction of conversion. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-018-0973-4
Koerte IK, Nichols E, Tripodis Y, Schultz V, Lehner S, Igbinoba R, Chuang AZ, Mayinger M, Klier EM, Muehlmann M, Kaufmann D, Lepage C, Heinen F, Schulte-Körne G, Zafonte R, Shenton ME, Sereno AB (2017) Impaired cognitive performance in youth athletes exposed to repetitive head impacts. J Neurotrauma 34(16):2389–2395. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2016.4960
Koo TK, Li MY (2016) A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research. J Chiropr Med 15(2):155–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcm.2016.02.012
Lange B, Hunfalvay M, Murray N, Roberts C-M, Bolte T (2018) Reliability of computerized eye-tracking reaction time tests in non-athletes, athletes, and individuals with traumatic brain injury. Optom vis Perform 6:119–129
Leigh RJ, Zee DS (2015) The neurology of eye movements. Oxford University Press, Oxford. https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199969289.001.0001
Linnet K, Bossuyt PMM, Moons KGM, Reitsma JB (2012) Quantifying the accuracy of a diagnostic test or marker. Clin Chem 58(9):1292–1301. https://doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2012.182543
List J, Ott S, Bukowski M, Lindenberg R, Flöel A (2015) Cognitive function and brain structure after recurrent mild traumatic brain injuries in young-to-middle-aged adults. Front Hum Neurosci 9(228):1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00228
Lynch JM, Stanley Green S, Green SS (2015) Do the eyes have it? Can consideration of concussion variants improve management? Curr Res Concussion 2(2):61–63
Mainwaring L, Ferdinand Pennock KM, Mylabathula S, Alavie BZ (2018) Subconcussive head impacts in sport: a systematic review of the evidence. Int J Psychophysiol 132:39–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.01.007
Manea L, Gilbody S, McMillan D (2012) Optimal cut-off score for diagnosing depression with the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9): a meta-analysis. Can Med Assoc J 184(3):E191–E196. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.110829
Marandi RZ, Madeleine P, Omland Ø, Vuillerme N, Samani A (2018) Eye movement characteristics reflected fatigue development in both young and elderly individuals. Sci Rep 8(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31577-1
McCrory P, Meeuwisse W, Dvorak J, Aubry M, Bailes J, Broglio S, Cantu RC, Cassidy D, Echemendia RJ, Castellani RJ, Davis GA, Ellenbogen R, Emery C, Engebretsen L, Feddermann-Demont N, Giza CC, Guskiewicz KM, Herring S, Iverson GL et al (2017) Consensus statement on concussion in sport—the 5th international conference on concussion in sport held in Berlin, October 2016. Br J Sports Med. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097699
McDowell JE, Dyckman KA, Austin BP, Clementz BA (2008) Neurophysiology and neuroanatomy of reflexive and volitional saccades: evidence from studies of humans. Brain Cogn 68(3):255–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.016
Meehan WP, Taylor AM, Berkner P, Sandstrom NJ, Peluso MW, Kurtz MM, Pascual-Leone A, Mannix R (2016) Division III collision sports are not associated with neurobehavioral quality of life. J Neurotrauma 33(2):254–259. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2015.3930
Murray N, Bolte T (2019) An examination of the oculomotor behavior metrics within a suite of digitized eye tracking tests. IEEE J Transl Eng Health Med 5(4):1–5
Murray N, D’Amico NR, Powell D, Mormile ME, Grimes KE, Munkasy BA, Gore RK, Reed-Jones RJ (2017a) ASB clinical biomechanics award winner 2016: assessment of gaze stability within 24–48 hours post-concussion. Clin Biomech 44:21–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2017.03.002
Murray N, Hunfalvay M, Bolte T (2017b) The reliability, validity, and normative data of interpupillary distance and pupil diameter using eye-tracking technology. Transl vis Sci Technol 6(4):2–2. https://doi.org/10.1167/tvst.6.4.2
Niehorster DC, Cornelissen THW, Holmqvist K, Hooge ITC, Hessels RS (2018) What to expect from your remote eye-tracker when participants are unrestrained. Behav Res Methods 50(1):213–227. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0863-0
Nij Bijvank JA, Petzold A, Balk LJ, Tan HS, Uitdehaag BMJ, Theodorou M, van Rijn LJ (2018) A standardized protocol for quantification of saccadic eye movements: DEMoNS. PLoS ONE 13(7):e0200695. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200695
O’Driscoll GA, Callahan BL (2008) Smooth pursuit in schizophrenia: a meta-analytic review of research since 1993. Brain Cogn 68(3):359–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.023
Ousler G, Abelson MB, Johnston PR, Rodriguez J, Lane K, Smith LM (2014) Blink patterns and lid-contact times in dry-eye and normal subjects. Clin Ophthalmol. https://doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S56783
Pearson BC, Armitage KR, Horner CWM, Carpenter RHS (2007) Saccadometry: the possible application of latency distribution measurement for monitoring concussion. Br J Sports Med 41(9):610–612. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2007.036731
Pierrot-Deseilligny C, Rivaud S, Gaymard B, Agid Y (1991) Cortical control of memory-guided saccades in man. Exp Brain Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00229839
Pierrot-Deseilligny C, Milea D, Müri R (2004) Eye movement control by the cerebral cortex. Curr Opin Neurol 17(1):17–25. https://doi.org/10.1097/00019052-200402000-00005
Post MW (2016) What to do with “moderate” reliability and validity coefficients? Arch Phys Med Rehabil 97(7):1051–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2016.04.001
Pouget A, Snyder LH (2000) Computational approaches to sensorimotor transformations. Nat Neurosci 3(S11):1192–1198. https://doi.org/10.1038/81469
Purcell LK (2005) Sport readiness in children and youth. Paediatr Child Health 10(6):343–344. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/10.6.343
Putukian M, Echemendia RJ, Chiampas G, Dvorak J, Mandelbaum B, Lemak LJ, Kirkendall D (2019) Head injury in soccer: from science to the field; summary of the head injury summit held in April 2017 in New York City, New York. Br J Sports Med 53(21):1332. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-100232
Rafferty J, Ranson C, Oatley G, Mostafa M, Mathema P, Crick T, Moore IS (2019) On average, a professional rugby union player is more likely than not to sustain a concussion after 25 matches. Br J Sports Med 53(15):969. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-098417
Rao CR (1971) Minimum variance quadratic unbiased estimation of variance components. J Multivar Anal 1(4):445–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-259X(71)90019-4
Rivara FP, Graham R (2014) Sports-related concussions in youth. JAMA 311(3):239. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.282985
Robinson DA, Gordon JL, Gordon SE (1986) A model of the smooth pursuit eye movement system. Biol Cybern 55(1):43–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00363977
Roy-Byrne P, Radant A, Wingerson D, Cowley DS (1995) Human oculomotor function: reliability and diurnal variation. Biol Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(94)00225-R
Schober P, Boer C, Schwarte LA (2018) Correlation coefficients: appropriate use and interpretation. Anesth Analg 126(5):1763–1768. https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0000000000002864
Schuck P, Zwingmann C (2003) The “smallest real difference” as a measure of sensitivity to change: a critical analysis. Int J Rehabil Res Internationale Zeitschrift Fur Rehabilitationsforschung. Revue Internationale De Recherches De Readaptation 26(2):85–91. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mrr.0000070759.63544.65
SensoMotoric Instruments (2015) SMI RED250mobile specifications sheet
Shaikh AG, Zee DS (2018) Eye movement research in the twenty-first century—a window to the brain, mind, and more. Cerebellum 17(3):252–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12311-017-0910-5
Shultz SR, MacFabe DF, Foley KA, Taylor R, Cain DP (2012) Sub-concussive brain injury in the Long-Evans rat induces acute neuroinflammation in the absence of behavioral impairments. Behav Brain Res 229(1):145–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2011.12.015
Skinner IW, Hübscher M, Moseley GL, Lee H, Wand BM, Traeger AC, Gustin SM, McAuley JH (2018) The reliability of eyetracking to assess attentional bias to threatening words in healthy individuals. Behav Res Methods 50(5):1778–1792. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0946-y
Snegireva N, Derman W, Patricios J, Welman K (2018) Eye tracking technology in sports-related concussion: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Physiol Meas 39(12):12TR01. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6579/aaef44
Stern JA, Walrath LC, Goldstein R (1984) The endogenous eyeblink. Psychophysiology 21(1):22–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1984.tb02312.x
Stern JA, Boyer D, Schroeder D (1994) Blink rate: a possible measure of fatigue. Hum Factors 36(2):285–297. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872089403600209
Stuart S, Alcock L, Godfrey A, Lord S, Rochester L, Galna B (2016) Accuracy and re-test reliability of mobile eye-tracking in Parkinson’s disease and older adults. Med Eng Phys 38(3):308–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medengphy.2015.12.001
Subramaniam A, Danivas V, Mahavir Agarwal S, Kalmady S, Shivakumar V, Amaresha AC, Bose A, Narayanaswamy JC, Varambally S, Hutton SB, Venkatasubramanian G, Gangadhar BN (2018) Clinical correlates of saccadic eye movement in antipsychotic-naïve schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 259:154–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.10.011
Sufrinko AM, Mucha A, Covassin T, Marchetti G, Elbin RJ, Collins MW, Kontos AP (2017) Sex differences in vestibular/ocular and neurocognitive outcomes following sport-related concussion. Clin J Sport Med off J Can Acad Sport Med 27(2):133–138. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0000000000000324
Sundaram V, Ding VY, Desai M, Lumba-Brown A, Little J (2019) Reliable sideline ocular-motor assessment following exercise in healthy student athletes. J Sci Med Sport 22(12):1287–1291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2019.07.015
Suzuki K, Kumei S, Ohhira M, Nozu T, Okumura T (2015) Screening for major depressive disorder with the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9 and PHQ-2) in an outpatient clinic staffed by primary care physicians in Japan: a case control study. PLoS ONE 10(3):e0119147. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0119147
Taghdiri F, Chung J, Irwin S, Multani N, Tarazi A, Ebraheem A, Khodadadi M, Goswami R, Wennberg R, Mikulis D, Green R, Davis K, Tator C, Eizenman M, Tartaglia MC (2018) Decreased number of self-paced saccades in post-concussion syndrome associated with higher symptom burden and reduced white matter integrity. J Neurotrauma 35(5):719–729. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2017.5274
Unsworth N, Robison MK, Miller AL (2019) Individual differences in baseline oculometrics: examining variation in baseline pupil diameter, spontaneous eye blink rate, and fixation stability. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-019-00709-z
Ventura RE, Balcer LJ, Galetta SL, Rucker JC (2016) Ocular motor assessment in concussion: current status and future directions. J Neurol Sci 361:79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2015.12.010
Yorke AM, Smith L, Babcock M, Alsalaheen B (2017) Validity and reliability of the vestibular/ocular motor screening and associations with common concussion screening tools. Sports Health Multidiscip Approach 9(2):174–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/1941738116678411
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a FIFA Research Scholarship. Special thanks go to Carmen Rogans for assistance with testing, Sewis van Zyl for help with the eye tracking data processing and analysis, as well as Dr James Burger of False Bay RFC, Marc Christian of Cape Town City FC, Norman Titus of Northlink College in Cape Town, as well as the students and staff of St John’s College, King Edward VII School, St Stithian‘s College, and St. David‘s Marist Inanda, in Johannesburg for assistance with recruitment.
Funding
This work was supported by a FIFA Research Scholarship.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
Jon Patricios is on the Scientific Advisory Board of EyeGuide Inc.
Ethical considerations
This observational reliability study was approved by the health research ethics committee of Stellenbosch University (S16/07/129) and adhered to the guidelines provided by the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant, as well as parents of participants under the age of 18, provided a written informed consent or assent statement.
Additional information
Communicated by Bill J Yates.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Snegireva, N., Derman, W., Patricios, J. et al. Eye tracking to assess concussions: an intra-rater reliability study with healthy youth and adult athletes of selected contact and collision team sports. Exp Brain Res 239, 3289–3302 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-021-06205-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-021-06205-6