Abstract
The integrative approach of water, energy, and food nexus (WEF nexus) is now widely accepted to offer better planning, development, and operation of these resources. This study presents a first attempt towards understanding the WEF nexus of urban environments in the Nile River Basin under conditions of hydrological droughts and fluvial floods. A case study was conducted for the capital of Sudan, Khartoum, at the confluence of the White Nile and the Blue Nile for illustration. The results were based on analyses of river flow and water turbidity data, field observations, a printed questionnaire and an interview of farmers practicing irrigated agriculture, and hydropower modeling. The study analyzes indicators for the association of the river water resources environment (intra-annual regime, quantity, and quality), the status of urban irrigated agriculture, water treatment for domestic use, and hydropower generation under hydrological extremes, i.e. droughts and fluvial floods. It additionally examines the consequent interactions between the impacts on three sectors. The present study shows how floods and droughts impose impacts on seasonal river water quality and quantity, water treatment for domestic use, irrigated agriculture, and hydro-energy supply in an urban environment. The results demonstrate how the two hydrological phenomena determine the state of hydropower generation from dams, i.e. high energy production during floods and vice versa during droughts. Hydropower dams, in turn, could induce cons in the form of low fertile soils in the downstream due to sediment retention by the reservoir. Finally, present and potential options to minimize the above risks are discussed. This study is hoped to offer good support for integrated decision making to increase the resource use efficiency over the urban environment within the Nile Basin.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbas HB, Routray JK (2013) A semi-quantitative risk assessment model of primary health care service interruption during flood: case study of Aroma locality, Kassala State of Sudan. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 6:118–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2013.10.002
Abdalla S, Beckedorf A, Blanchon D, et al (2010) Thirsty capital: urban growth, water management and infrastructure investments in Khartoum. UGEC viewpoints 39–43
Abdalla SB, Predotova M, Gebauer J, Buerkert A (2012) Horizontal nutrient flows and balances in irrigated urban gardens of Khartoum, Sudan. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 92:119–132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-011-9476-7
Ahamad KU, Sonowal DB, Kumar V et al (2014) Study on the impact of pre-sedimentation and consequently optimization of alum dose in water treatment process. Water Pract Technol 9:417–429. https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2014.046
Ahmed N (2004) Assessment of the performance of Mogran water treatment plant during flood season. University of Khartoum
Ahmed A (2009) Gezira Scheme irrigation system performance after 80 years of operation. In: International conference on water, environment, energy and society. New Delhi
Alrajoula MT, Al Zayed IS, Elagib NA, Hamdi MR (2016) Hydrological, socio-economic and reservoir alterations of Er Roseires Dam in Sudan. Sci Total Environ 566–567:938–948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.029
Al-Saidi M, Elagib N (2017) Towards understanding the integrative approach of the water, energy and food nexus. Sci Total Environ 574:1131–1139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.046
Al-Saidi M, Hefny A (2018) Institutional arrangements for beneficial regional cooperation on water, energy and food priority issues in the Eastern Nile Basin. J Hydrol 562:821–831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.05.009
Al-Saidi M, Elagib NA, Ribbe L et al (2017) Water energy food security nexus in the Eastern Nile Basin: assessing the potential of transboundary regional cooperation. In: Abdul Salam P, Shrestha S, Pandey VP, Anal AK (eds) Water-energy-food nexus: principles and practices. Wiley, American Geophysical Union, New York
ANDRITZ Hydro (2013) Hydromatrix: Jebel Aulia—Sudan. Linz
Awad M, Li F, Wang H (2013) An investigative study on natural soil. J Appl Sci Environ Sanit 8:53–60
Babiker AAG (1982) Urbanization and desertification in the Sudan with special reference to Khartoum. GeoJournal 6:69–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00446596
Babiker MHO (2017) Production and marketing of vegetables crops in Khartoum State, Sudan. Int J Agric Innov Res 6(2):320–324
Basheer M, Elagib NA (2018) Sensitivity of water-energy nexus to dam operation: a water-energy productivity concept. Sci Total Environ 616–617:918–926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.228
Basheer M, Wheeler KG, Ribbe L et al (2018) Quantifying and evaluating the impacts of cooperation in transboundary river basins on the Water-Energy-Food nexus: the Blue Nile Basin. Sci Total Environ 630:1309–1323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.249
Basheer M, Sulieman R, Ribbe L (2019) Exploring management approaches for water and energy in the data-scarce Tekeze-Atbara Basin under hydrologic uncertainty. Int J Water Res Dev. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2019.1591941
Beshir MO, Bennett FD (1984) Biological control of water hyacinth on the White Nile, Sudan. Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, pp 491–496
Betrie GD, Mohamed YA, Van Griensven A, et al (2009) Modeling of soil erosion and sediment transport in the Blue Nile Basin using the open model interface approach. In: Improved water and land management in the Ethiopian highlands: its impact on downstream stakeholders dependent on the Blue Nile. CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings, Addis Ababa, pp 132–140
Birima AH, Hammad HA, Desa MNM, Muda ZC (2013) Extraction of natural coagulant from peanut seeds for treatment of turbid water. In: IOP conference series: earth and environmental science. IOP Publishing
Boadi K, Kuitunen M, Raheem K, Hanninen K (2005) Urbanisation without development: environmental and health implications in African cities. Environ Dev Sustain 7:465–500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-004-5410-3
Bordi I, Fraedrich K, Sutera A (2009) Observed drought and wetness trends in Europe: an update. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 13:1519–1530. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-13-1519-2009
Borges AKP, Tauk-Tornisielo SM, Domingos RN, De Angelis DDF (2008) Performance of the constructed wetland system for the treatment of water from the Corumbataí River. Braz Arch Biol Technol 51:1279–1286. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1516-89132008000600024
Bussmann A, Elagib NA, Fayyad M, Ribbe L (2016) Sowing date determinants for Sahelian rainfed agriculture in the context of agricultural policies and water management. Land Use Policy 52:316–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.12.007
Caspers H (1977) The Nile, biology of an ancient river. Editor: Julian Rzóska—Monographiae Biologicae (editor J. Illies) Volume 29. With 101 figs., 18 tabl., 1 map, 420 pp. The Hague: Dr. J. Junk B. V., Publishers 1976. ISBN 90 6193 081 2. Hfl. 120.—. Int Rev der gesamten Hydrobiol und Hydrogr 62:834–835. https://doi.org/10.1002/iroh.1977.3510620622
Conway D (1997) A water balance model of the Upper Blue Nile in Ethiopia. Hydrol Sci J 42:265–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626669709492024
Conway D, Hulme M (1993) Recent fluctuations in precipitation and runoff over the Nile sub-basins and their impact on main Nile discharge. Clim Change 25:127–151. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01661202
Davies HRJ, Walsh RPD (1997) Historical changes in the flood hazard at Khartoum, Sudan: lessons and warnings for the future. Singap J Trop Geogr 18:123–140. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9493.00012
Degefu MA, Bewket W (2014) Variability and trends in rainfall amount and extreme event indices in the Omo-Ghibe River Basin, Ethiopia. Reg Environ Change 14:799–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-013-0538-z
Dewan TH (2015) Societal impacts and vulnerability to floods in Bangladesh and Nepal. Weather Clim Extrem 7:36–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2014.11.001
Digna RF, Castro-Gama ME, van der Zaag P et al (2018) Optimal operation of the Eastern Nile System using Genetic Algorithm, and benefits distribution of water resources development. Water (Switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/w10070921
DIU (2016) Roseires heightening project. In: Minist. Water Resour. Electr. Sudan. http://www.roseiresdam.gov.sd/en/raising_project.htm. Accessed 27 Jan 2019
DoP (2015) Agreement on declaration of principles between the Arab Republic of Egypt, The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the Republic of the Sudan on the grand Ethiopian renaissance dam project. Khartoum
Du W, FitzGerald GJ, Clark M, Hou X-Y (2010) Health impacts of floods. Prehosp Disaster Med 25:265–272. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x00008141
Dubbeling M, De Zeeuw H (2011) In: Otto-Zimmermann K (ed) Urban agriculture and climate change adaptation: ensuring food security through adaptation BT—resilient cities. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 441–449
Easton ZM, Fuka DR, White ED et al (2010) A multi basin SWAT model analysis of runoff and sedimentation in the Blue Nile, Ethiopia. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 14:1827–1841. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-1827-2010
Ebabu K, Tsunekawa A, Haregeweyn N et al (2018) Analyzing the variability of sediment yield: a case study from paired watersheds in the Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. Geomorphology 303:446–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.12.020
Elagib NA (2009) Assessment of drought across central Sudan using UNEP dryness ratio. Hydrol Res 40:481. https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2009.016
Elagib NA (2011) Evolution of urban heat island in Khartoum. Int J Climatol 31:1377–1388. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2159
Elagib NA, Elhag MM (2011) Major climate indicators of ongoing drought in Sudan. J Hydrol 409:612–625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.08.047
Elagib NA, Musa AA, Sulieman HM (2017) Socio-hydrological framework of farmer-drought feedback: Darfur as a case study. In: Abdalla O, Kacimov A, Chen M et al (eds) Water resources in arid areas: the way forward. Springer, Cham, pp 461–479
Elbashir H, Imam M (2010) Status report on fruits and vegetables production and processing industry in Sudan
Ellison C, Kiesling R, Fallon J (2010) Correlating streamflow, turbidity, and suspended-sediment concentration in minnesota’s wild rice river. In: 2nd joint federal intragency conference. Las Vegas, pp 1–12
Elzubeir AO (2016) Solar energy in Northern State (Sudan): current state and prospects. Am J Mod Energy 2:31–37. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajme.20160205.12
Engström RE, Howells M, Destouni G et al (2017) Connecting the resource nexus to basic urban service provision—with a focus on water-energy interactions in New York City. Sustain Cities Soc 31:83–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.02.007
Esmaeili A, Shokoohi Z (2011) Assessing the effect of oil price on world food prices: application of principal component analysis. Energy Policy 39:1022–1025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.004
FAO (2014) The water-energy-food nexus—a new approach in support of food security and sustainable agriculture. Rome
Gebremicael TG, Mohamed YA, Betrie GD et al (2013) Trend analysis of runoff and sediment fluxes in the Upper Blue Nile basin: a combined analysis of statistical tests, physically-based models and landuse maps. J Hydrol 482:57–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.12.023
Gondhalekar D, Ramsauer T (2017) Nexus City: operationalizing the urban water-energy-food nexus for climate change adaptation in Munich, Germany. Urban Clim 19:28–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2016.11.004
Göransson G, Larson M, Bendz D (2013) Variation in turbidity with precipitation and flow in a regulated river system-river Göta Älv, SW Sweden. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 17:2529–2542. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-2529-2013
Gregory KJ (2006) The human role in changing river channels. Geomorphology 79:172–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.06.018
Headey D, Fan S (2008) Anatomy of a crisis: the causes and consequences of surging food prices. Agric Econ 39:375–391. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2008.00345.x
HEC (2000) Hydrologic modeling system HEC-HMS technical reference manual. Washington
Hrdinka T, Novický O, Hanslík E, Rieder M (2012) Possible impacts of floods and droughts on water quality. J Hydro-Environ Res 6:145–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jher.2012.01.008
Hu MC, Huang T, Yu HL, Tung CP (2018) Stochastic competitive analysis of hydropower and water supplies within an energy-water nexus. Stoch Environ Res Risk Assess 32:2761–2769. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-017-1500-2
Jahn SAA, Dirar H (1979) Studies on natural water coagulants in the Sudan, with special reference to Moringa oleifera seeds. Water SA 5:90–97
Jarvis A, Reuter H, Nelson A, Guevara E (2008) Hole-filled SRTM for the globe version 4. In: CGIAR-CSI SRTM 90 m database. http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org. Accessed 30 Dec 2018
Kanji GK (2006) 100 statistical tests, 3rd edn. SAGE Publications Ltd, London, California, New Delhi
Khalid N (2003) Performance of small irrigation pumps in Khartoum State. University of Khartoum
Khedr AHA, El-Demerdash MA (1997) Distribution of aquatic plants in relation to environmental factors in the Nile Delta. Aquat Bot 56:75–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3770(96)01090-x
Kheiralla K, Eshag A, Elzien S et al (2014) Seasonal variation of algae types, counts and their effect on purified water quality case study: Al-Mogran and Burri Plants, Khartoum State, Sudan. J Biodivers Endanger Species 2:2–5. https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-2543.1000122
Kundzewicz ZW, Budhakooncharoen S, Bronstert A et al (2003) Coping with variability and change: floods and droughts. Nat Resour Forum 26:263–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.00029
Kundzewicz ZW, Mata LJ, Arnell NW, et al (2007) Freshwater resources and their management. In: Parry ML, Caziani OF, Palutikof JP, et al. (eds) Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 173–210
Kurzbaum E, Kirzhner F, Armon R (2012) Improvement of water quality using constructed wetland systems. Rev Environ Health 27:59–64. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2012-0005
Landsberg HE (1982) Climatic aspects of droughts. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 63:593–597
Leathers DJ, Grundstein AJ, Ellis AW (2000) Growing season moisture deficits across the northeastern United States. Clim Res 14:43–55
Lewis J, Eads R (2009) Implementation guide for turbidity threshold sampling: principles, procedures, and analysis
Maheshwari B, Bristow KL (2016) Peri-urban water, agriculture and urbanisation. Agric Water Manag 176:263–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2016.09.009
Mahmood MI, Elagib NA, Horn F, Saad SAG (2017) Lessons learned from Khartoum flash flood impacts: an integrated assessment. Sci Total Environ 601–602:1031–1045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.260
Mahmoud WH, Elagib NA, Gaese H, Heinrich J (2014) Rainfall conditions and rainwater harvesting potential in the urban area of Khartoum. Resour Conserv Recycl 91:89–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2014.07.014
Mailu AM (2001) Preliminary assessment of the social, economic and environmental impacts of water hyacinth in the Lake Victoria Basin and the status of control. In: Biological and integrated control of water hyacinth: Eichhornia crassipes. In: Proceedings of the second meeting of the global working group for the biological and integrated control of water Hyacinth, Beijing, China, 9–12 October 2000. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), Canberra, pp 130–139
Mawdsley J, Petts GE, Walker S (1994) Assessment of drought severity. Institute of Hydrology
Merz B, Kreibich H, Schwarze R, Thieken A (2010) Review article” Assessment of economic flood damage”. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 10:1697–1724. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-10-1697-2010
Mishra AK, Singh VP (2010) A review of drought concepts. J Hydrol 391:202–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012
Mohammed K (2015) Ma’akhz wathiqat i’lan almabade’ hawla sad alnahda men almontalaq alilmy alhandasy [Reservations on the Declaration of Principles on GERD from a technical point of view]. In: Sudacon. http://www.sudacon.net/2015/04/blog-post_6.html. Accessed 17 Nov 2018
MoIHES (1977) Blue Nile waters study phase IA: availability and use of Blue Nile water. Khartoum
MoIHPS (1968) Regulation rules for the working of the reservoirs at Roseires and Sennar on the Blue Nile
MoWRI Egypt (2014) Assessment of the impact of the grand Ethiopian Renaissance dam on Egypt. Cairo
Mu Q, Zhao M, Running S (2011) Improvements to a MODIS global terrestrial evapotranspiration algorithm. Remote Sens Environ 115:1781–1800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2011.02.019
Musnad MM, Siyam AM (2016) Using pre-sedimentation tank to mitigate high turbidity in water treatment plants. Noor Publishing, Riga
Musnad M, Siyam AM, Bashar KE (2015) The relationship between turbidity and total suspended solids in the Blue Nile River at Khartoum. Water Sci Eng J 8:41–50
Nalbantis I, Tsakiris G (2009) Assessment of hydrological drought revisited. Water Resour Manag 23:881–897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-008-9305-1
NBI (2012) State of the River Nile Basin 2012. Entebbe
Nour E, Balla AH (1989) The relationship between urbanization and socio-economic development in the Sudan. GeoJournal 18:369–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00772691
Novella N, Thiaw W (2013) African rainfall climatology version 2 for famine early warning systems. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 52:588–606. https://doi.org/10.1175/jamc-d-11-0238.1
Omer AM (2005) Biomass energy potential and future prospect in Sudan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 9:1–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2003.12.011
Owens PN, Batalla RJ, Collins AJ et al (2005) Fine-grained sediment in river systems: environmental significance and management issues. River Res Appl 21:693–717. https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.878
Paeth H, Fink AH, Pohle S et al (2011) Meteorological characteristics and potential causes of the 2007 flood in sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Climatol 31:1908–1926. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2199
Posthumus H, Morris J, Hess TM et al (2009) Impacts of the summer 2007 floods on agriculture in England. J Flood Risk Manag 2:182–189. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-318x.2009.01031.x
Ramavandi B (2014) Treatment of water turbidity and bacteria by using a coagulant extracted from Plantago ovata. Water Resour Ind 6:36–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wri.2014.07.001
Rao AR, Voeller TL (1997) Development and testing of drought indicators. Water Resour Manag 11:119–136. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1007933725122
Raslan Y (2010) Human impacts on Nile River morphology. In: Fourteenth international water technology conference (IWTC 14 2010), Cairo, Egypt, pp 221–236
Raslan Y, Salama R (2015) Development of Nile River islands between Old Aswan Dam and new Esna barrages. Water Sci 29:77–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsj.2015.03.003
Roidt M, Avellán T (2019) Learning from integrated management approaches to implement the Nexus. J Environ Manag 237:609–616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.02.106
Saeed T, Paul B, Afrin R et al (2016) Floating constructed wetland for the treatment of polluted river water: a pilot scale study on seasonal variation and shock load. Chem Eng J 287:62–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.10.118
Samimi C, Fink AH, Paeth H (2012) The 2007 flood in the Sahel: causes, characteristics and its presentation in the media and FEWS NET. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 12:313–325. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-313-2012
Saritha V, Srinivas N, Srikanth Vuppala NV (2017) Analysis and optimization of coagulation and flocculation process. Appl Water Sci 7:451–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-014-0262-y
Savenije HHG (1995) Recent extreme floods in Europe and the USA; challenges for the future. Phys Chem Earth 20:433–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0079-1946(96)00001-8
Schumacher J, Luedeling E, Gebauer J et al (2009) Spatial expansion and water requirements of urban agriculture in Khartoum, Sudan. J Arid Environ 73:399–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2008.12.005
Seregina LS, Fink AH, van der Linden R, Elagib NA, Pinto JG (2019) A new and flexible rainy season definition: validation for the Greater Horn of Africa and application to rainfall trends. Int J Climatol 39(2):989–1012
Shukla S, Wood AW (2008) Use of a standardized runoff index for characterizing hydrologic drought. Geophys Res Lett 35:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007gl032487
Sinada F, Abdel Karim AG (1984) A quantitative study of the phytoplankton in the Blue and White Niles at Khartoum. Hydrobiologia 110:47–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00025775
Sobeir SE (1983) Gebel Aulia dam and reservoir. Khartoum
Stamou A, Rutschmann P (2018) Pareto optimization of water resources using the nexus approach. Water Resour Manag. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-018-2127-x
Sudan Population (2018) World population review. http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/sudan/. Accessed 11 Nov 2018
Sultana P, Thompson PM (2018) Effects of flood control and drainage on fisheries in Bangladesh and the design of mitigating measures. Regul Rivers Res Manag 13:43–55. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-1646(199701)13:1%3c43:aid-rrr423%3e3.0.co;2-k
Sun Z, Huang Q, Opp C et al (2012) Impacts and implications of major changes caused by the three Gorges dam in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, China. Water Resour Manag 26:3367–3378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-012-0076-3
Susfalk RB, Fitzgerald B, Knust AM (2008) Characterization of turbidity and total suspended solids in the Upper Carson River, Nevada, DHS Publication No. 41242, Desert Research Institute, Nevada System of Higher Education, 53 pp
Sutcliffe J, Parks Y (1999) The hydrology of the Nile. The International Association of Hydrological Science, Wallingford
Sutcliffe JV, Dugdale G, Milford JR (1989) The sudan floods of 1988. Hydrol Sci J 34:355–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626668909491339
Taghizadeh MM (2018) Pre-sedimentation tank effects on water treatment unit operation. EQA Int J Environ Qual. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2281-4485/7804
Taye MT, Willems P, Block P (2015) Implications of climate change on hydrological extremes in the Blue Nile basin: a review. J Hydrol Reg Stud 4:280–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.07.001
Tekleab S, Mohamed Y, Uhlenbrook S, Wenninger J (2013) Hydrologic responses to land cover change: the case of Jedeb mesoscale catchment, Abay/Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. Hydrol Process 28:5149–5161. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9998
Tilahun SA, Guzman CD, Zegeye AD et al (2013) An efficient semi-distributed hillslope erosion model for the subhumid Ethiopian Highlands. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 17:1051–1063. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-1051-2013
UNEP (2015) Climate change adaptation capacities in the Nile River Basin
Vanmaercke M, Poesen J, Maetens W et al (2011) Sediment yield as a desertification risk indicator. Sci Total Environ 409:1715–1725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.01.034
Vincent G, Shang K, Zhang G et al (2018) Plant growth and nutrient uptake in treatment wetlands for water with low pollutant concentration. Water Sci Technol 77:1072–1078. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2017.624
Walker S, Smithers HA (1995) Recent advances in drought management with particular reference to northwest England. In: Modelling and management of sustainable basin-scale water resource systems. International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) Publications, Proceedings of a Boulder Symposium, pp 107–116
Walsh RPD, Davies HRJ, Musa SB (1994) Flood frequency and impacts at Khartoum since the early nineteenth century. Geogr J 160:266–279. https://doi.org/10.2307/3059609
Wheeler KG, Basheer M, Mekonnen Z et al (2016) Cooperative filling approaches for the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. Water Int 8060:1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2016.1177698
Wheeler K, Robinson C, Bark R (2018) Modelling to bridge many boundaries: the Colorado and Murray-Darling River basins. Reg Environ Change. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1304-z
Wickramaarachchi TN, Ishidaira H, Wijayaratna TMN (2013) Streamflow, suspended solids, and turbidity characteristics of the Gin River, Sri Lanka. Eng J Inst Eng Sri Lanka 46:43–51. https://doi.org/10.4038/engineer.v46i4.6809
Woldesenbet TA, Elagib NA, Ribbe L, Heinrich J (2017) Hydrological responses to land use/cover changes in the source region of the Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Sci Total Environ 575:724–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.124
Worku G, Teferi E, Bantider A, Dile YT (2018) Observed changes in extremes of daily rainfall and temperature in Jemma Sub-Basin, Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Theor Appl Climatol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-018-2412-x
World Health Organization (2010) Aluminium in drinking-water: background document for development of WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality
Zaghloul S, El-Moattassem M, Rady A (2007) The hydrological interactions between Atbara River and the Main Nile at the confluence area. In: The international congress of river basin management. Antalya, pp 787–799
Zagona E, Fulp T, Shane R et al (2001) Riverware: a generalized tool for complex reservoir system modeling. J Am Water Resour Assoc 37:913–929
Zhang C, Chen X, Li Y et al (2018) Water-energy-food nexus: concepts, questions and methodologies. J Clean Prod 195:625–639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.05.194
Acknowledgements
Many thanks go to the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) for funding the MSc studies of Mrs. Gore (co-author), to Prof. Gamal Abdu, Director of the Water Research Centre at University of Khartoum who provided Mrs. Gore for hosting her research stay within the centre, and to Eng. Yasin for guiding her filed trips in Khartoum.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Elagib, N.A., Gayoum Saad, S.A., Basheer, M. et al. Exploring the urban water-energy-food nexus under environmental hazards within the Nile. Stoch Environ Res Risk Assess 35, 21–41 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-019-01706-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-019-01706-x