Abstract
This study presents a new steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP)-based brain computer interface (BCI). SSVEPs, induced by phase-tagged flashes in eight light emitting diodes (LEDs), were used to control four cursor movements (up, right, down, and left) and four button functions (on, off, right-, and left-clicks) on a screen menu. EEG signals were measured by one EEG electrode placed at Oz position, referring to the international EEG 10-20 system. Since SSVEPs are time-locked and phase-locked to the onsets of SSVEP flashes, EEG signals were bandpass-filtered and segmented into epochs, and then averaged across a number of epochs to sharpen the recorded SSVEPs. Phase lags between the measured SSVEPs and a reference SSVEP were measured, and targets were recognized based on these phase lags. The current design used eight LEDs to flicker at 31.25 Hz with 45° phase margin between any two adjacent SSVEP flickers. The SSVEP responses were filtered within 29.25–33.25 Hz and then averaged over 60 epochs. Owing to the utilization of high-frequency flickers, the induced SSVEPs were away from low-frequency noises, 60 Hz electricity noise, and eye movement artifacts. As a consequence, we achieved a simple architecture that did not require eye movement monitoring or other artifact detection and removal. The high-frequency design also achieved a flicker fusion effect for better visualization. Seven subjects were recruited in this study to sequentially input a command sequence, consisting of a sequence of eight cursor functions, repeated three times. The accuracy and information transfer rate (mean ± SD) over the seven subjects were 93.14 ± 5.73% and 28.29 ± 12.19 bits/min, respectively. The proposed system can provide a reliable channel for severely disabled patients to communicate with external environments.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Basar, E. Brain functions and oscillation. In: Cross-Modality Experiments on the Cat Brain, edited by E. Basar, T. Demiralp, M. Schurmann, and C. Basar-Eroglu. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1999, pp. 27–59.
Baseler, H. A., E. E. Sutter, S. A. Klein, and T. Carney. The topography of visual evoked response properties across the visual field. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 90:65–81, 1994.
Birbaumer, N., H. Flor, N. Ghanayim, T. Hinterberger, I. Iverson, E. Taub, B. Kotchoubey, A. Kubler, and J. Perelmouter. A spelling device for the paralyzed. Nature 398:297–298, 1999.
Brown, B., and M. Z. Yu. Variation of topographic visually evoked potentials across the visual field. Ophthal. Physl. Opt. 17:25–31, 1997.
Carlin, L., E. S. Roach, A. Riela, E. Spudis, and W. T. McLean. Juvenile metachromatic leukodystrophy: evoked potentials and computed tomography. Ann. Neurol. 13:105–106, 1983.
Carpenter, R. H. S. Movements of the Eyes (2nd ed.). London, England: Pion, 1988.
Cheng, M., X. Gao, S. Gao, and D. Xu. Design and implementation of a brain–computer interface with high transfer rates. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 49:1181–1186, 2002.
Clark, V. P., and S. A. Hillyard. Spatial selective attention affects early extrastriate but not striate components of the visual evoked potential. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 8:387–402, 1996.
Cornsweet, T. N. Visual Perception. New York: Academic, 1970.
Ding, J., G. Sperling, and R. Srinivasan. Attentional modulation of SSVEP power depends on the network tagged by the flicker frequency. Cerebral Cortex 16:1016–1029, 2006.
Donchin, E., K. M. Spencer, and R. Wilesinghe. The mental prosthesis: assessing the speed of a P300-based braincomputer interface. IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. 8:174–179, 2000.
Duchowski, A. T. Eye tracking methodology: theory and practice. In: Eye Tracking Technologies. London, England: Springer Publishers, 2003, pp. 55–65.
Fries, P., J. H. Reynolds, A. E. Rorie, and R. Desimone. Modulation of oscillatory neuronal synchronization by selective visual attention. Science 291:1560–1563, 2001.
Eriksen, C. W., and J. D. St. James. Visual attention within and around the field of focal attention: a zoom lens model. Percept. Psychophys. 40:225–240, 1986.
Haselsteiner, E., and G. Pfurtscheller. Using time-dependent neural networks for EEG classification. IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. 8:457–463, 2000.
Heinze, H. J., G. R. Mangun, W. Burchert, H. Hinrichs, M. Scholz, T. F. Munte, A. Gos, M. Scherg, S. Johannes, H. Hundeshagen, M. S. Gazzaniga, and S. A. Hillyard. Combined spatial and temporal imaging of brain activity during visual selective attention in human. Nature 372:543–546, 1994.
Herrmann, C. S. Human EEG responses to 1–100 Hz flicker: resonance phenomena in visual cortex and their potential correlation to cognitive phenomena. Exp. Brain Res. 137:346–353, 2001.
Hillyard, S. A., and L. Anllo-Vento. Event-related brain potentials in the study of visual selective attention. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:781–787, 1998.
Hinterberger, T., A. Kubler, J. Kaiser, N. Neumann, and N. Birbaumer. A brain–computer interface (BCI) for the locked-in: comparison of different EEG classifications for thought translation device. Clin. Neurophosiol. 114:416–425, 2003.
Jung, T. P., S. Makeig, M. Westerfield, J. Townsend, E. Courchesne, and J. T. Sejnowski. Analysis and visualization of single-trial event-related potentials. Hum. Brain Mapp. 14:166–185, 2001.
Kelly, S. P., E. C. Lalor, R. B. Reilly, and J. J. Foxe. Visual spatial attention tracking using high density SSVEP data for independent brain–computer communication. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 13:172–178, 2005.
Krishnaveni, V., S. Jayaraman, S. Aravind, V. Hariharasudhan, and K. Ramadoss. Automatic identification and removal of ocular artifacts from EEG using wavelet transform. Meas. Sci. Rev. 6:45–57, 2006.
Kriss, A., W. M. Carroll, L. D. Blumhardt, and A. M. Halliday. Pattern and flash evoked potential changes in toxic (nutritional) optic neuropathy. Adv. Neurol. 32:11–19, 1982.
Lee, P. L., Y. T. Wu, L. F. Chen, Y. S. Chen, C. M. Cheng, T. C. Yeh, L. T. Ho, M. S. Chang, and J. C. Hsieh. ICA based spatiotemporal approach for single-trial analysis of post-movement MEG beta synchronization. Neuroimage 20:2010–2030, 2003.
Lee, P. L., C. H. Wu, Y. T. Wu, L. F. Chen, T. C. Yeh, and J. C. Hsieh. Visual evoked potential (VEP)—actuated brain computer interface: a brain-actuated cursor system. Electron. Lett. 21:832–834, 2005.
Lee, P. L., J. C. Hsieh, C. H. Wu, K. K. Shyu, S. S. Chen, T. C. Yeh, and Y. T. Wu. The brain computer interface using flash visual evoked potential and independent component analysis. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 34:1641–1654, 2006.
Lee, P. L., J. C. Hsieh, C. H. Wu, K. K. Shyu, and Y. T. Wu. Brain computer interface using flash onset and offset visual evoked potentials. Clin. Neurophysiol. 119:605–616, 2008.
Lin, Z., C. Zhang, W. Wu, and X. Gao. Correlation analysis for SSVEP-based BCIs. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 54:1172–1176, 2007.
Luck, S. J., L. Chellazzi, S. A. Hillyard, and R. Desimone. Neural mechanisms of spatial selective attention in areas V1, V2, and V4 macaque visual cortex. J. Neurophysiol. 77:24–42, 1997.
Mangun, G. R., and S. A. Hillyard. Spatial gradients of visual attention: behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 75:417–428, 1988.
Manoilov, P. EEG eye-blinking artefacts power spectrum analysis. CompSysTech IIIA:1–5, 2006.
Markand, O. N., B. P. Garg, W. E. DeMyer, and C. Warren. Brain stem auditory, visual and somatosensory evoked potentials in leukodystrophies. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 54:39–48, 1982.
Mason, S. G., and G. E. Birch. A brain-controlled switch for asynchronous control applications. IEEE Trans. Biomeed. Eng. 47:1297–1307, 2000.
McKeown, M. J., S. Makeig, G. G. Brown, T. P. Jung, S. S. Kindermann, A. J. Bell, and T. J. Sejnowski. Analysis of fMRI data by blind separation into independent spatial components. Hum. Brain Mapp. 6:160–188, 1998.
McMains, S. A., and D. C. Somers. Multiple spotlights of attentional selection in human visual cortex. Neuron 42:677–686, 2004.
McSherry, J. W., C. L. Walters, and J. D. Horbar. Acute visual evoked potential changes in hydrocephalus. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 53:331–333, 1982.
Meinicke, P., M. Kaper, F. Hoppe, M. Heumann, and H. Ritter. Improving transfer rates in brain computer interfacing: a case study. Adv. Neural. Inf. Proc. Syst. 15:1131–1138, 2003.
Middendorf, M., G. McMillan, G. Calhoun, and K. S. Jones. Brain–computer interface based on the steady-state visual-evoked response. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 8:211–214, 2000.
Palaniappan, R., R. Paramesran, S. Nishida, and N. Saiwaki. A new brain–computer interface using fuzzy ARTMAP. IEEE Trans. Neural. Syst. Rehabil. 10:140–148, 2002.
Pfurtscheller, G., C. Neuper, C. Guger, W. Harkam, H. Ramoser, A. Schlogl, B. Obermaier, and M. Pregenzer. Current trends in Graz brain–computer interface (BCI) research. IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. 8:216–219, 2000.
Raitta, C., U. Karhunene, A. M. Seppalainen, and M. Naukkarinen. Changes in the electroretinogram and visual evoked potentials during general anaesthesia. Albrecht von Graefes Arch. Klin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 211:139–144, 1979.
Reilly, E. L., C. Kondo, J. A. Brunberg, and D. B. Doty. Visual evoked potentials during hypothermia and prolonged circulatory arrest. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 45:100–106, 1978.
Reynolds, J. H., and L. Chelazzi. Attentional modulation of visual processing. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 27:611–647, 2004.
Schurmann, M., and E. Basar. Topography of alpha and theta responses upon auditory and visual sitmuli in humans. Biol. Cybern. 72:161–174, 2004.
Sivakumar, R., B. Hema, P. Karir, and N. Nithyaklyani. Denosing of transient VEP signals using wavelet transform. J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 1:242–247, 2006.
Spehlmann, R. Evoked potential primer. In: Electrode Placements and Combinations for Full-Field and Half-Field VEPs. Stoneham, MA: Butterworth Publishers, 1985, pp. 103–109.
Spehlmann, R. Evoked potential primer. In: The Transient VEP to Diffuse Light Simuli, edited by K. E. Misulis, and T. Fakhoury. Stoneham: Butterworth Publishers, 1985, pp. 135–142.
Spehlmann, R. Evoked potential primer. In: VEPs to Other Stimuli, edited by K. E. Misulis, and T. Fakhoury. Stoneham: Butterworth Publishers, 1985, pp. 144–158.
Strasburger, H., W. Wolfgang, and I. Rentschler. Amplitude and phase characteristics of the steady-state visual evoked potential. Appl. Opt. 27:1069–1088, 1988.
Sutter, E. E. The brain response interface: communication through visually-induced electrical brain responses. J. Microcomput. Appl. 15:31–45, 1992.
Sutter, E. E., and D. Tran. The field topography of ERG components in Man—I. The photopic luminance response. Vision Res. 32:433–446, 1992.
Tang, A. C., B. A. Pearlmutter, N. A. Malaszenko, and D. B. Phung. Independent components of magnetoencephalography: single-trial response onset times. Neuroimage 17:1773–1789, 2002.
Trejo, L. J., R. Rosipal, and B. Matthews. Brain–computer interfaces for 1-D and 2-D cursor control: designs using volitional control of the EEG spectrum or steady-state visual evoked potentials. IEEE Trans. Neurol. Syst. Rehabil. 14:225–229, 2006.
Trojaborg, W., and E. O. Jorgensen. Evoked cortical potentials in patients with “isoelectric” EEGs. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 35:301–309, 1973.
Uhl, R. R., K. C. Squires, D. L. Bruce, and A. Starr. Effect of halothane anesthesia on the human cortical visual evoked response. Anesthesiology 53:273–276, 1980.
Wang, Y., R. Wang, X. Gao, B. Hong, and X. Gao. A practical VEP-based brain–computer interface. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 14:234–239, 2006.
Wilson, W. B. Visual-evoked response differentiation of ischemic optic neuritis from the optic neuritis of multiple sclerosis. Am. J. Ophthal. 86:530–535, 1978.
Wolpaw, J. R., N. Birbaumer, W. J. Heetderks, D. J. McFarland, P. H. Peckham, G. Schalk, E. Donchin, L. A. Quatrano, C. J. Robinson, and T. M. Vaughan. Brain–computer interface technology: a review of the first international meeting. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 8:164–173, 2000.
Wolpaw, J. R., N. Birbaumer, D. J. McFarland, G. Pfurtscheller, and T. M. Vaughan. Brain–computer interfaces for communication and control. Clin. Neurophysiol. 113:767–791, 2002.
Worden, M. S., J. J. Foxe, N. Wang, and G. V. Simpson. Anticipatory biasing of visuospatial attention indexed by retinotopically specific alpha-band electroencephalography increases over occipital cortex. J Neurosci 20:RC63, 2000.
Wu, C. H., P. L. Lee, Y. T. Wu, and J. C. Hsieh. ICA-based analysis of movement-related modulation on beta activity of single-trial MEG measurement using spatial and temporal templates. J. Med. Biol. Eng. 28:155–159, 2008.
Yamaguchi, S., H. Tsuchiya, and S. Kobayashi. Electroencephalographic activity associated with shifts of visuospatial attention. Brain 117:553–562, 1994.
Acknowledgments
This study was funded by the National Central University, National Science Council (95-2314-B-075-118, 96-2628-E-008-070-MY3, 96-2221-E-008-122-MY3, 96-2221-E-010-003-MY3, 96-2221-E-008-115-MY3, 96-2752-B-010-008-PAE), and Veterans General Hospital University System of Taiwan Joint Research Program (VGHUST96-P4-15, VGHUST97-P3-11, VGHUST98-P3-09, VGHUST99-P3-13). We thank Prof. Yu-Te Wu for his contribution in manuscript preparation.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Associate Editor Berj L. Bardakjian oversaw the review of this article.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lee, PL., Sie, JJ., Liu, YJ. et al. An SSVEP-Actuated Brain Computer Interface Using Phase-Tagged Flickering Sequences: A Cursor System. Ann Biomed Eng 38, 2383–2397 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-010-9964-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-010-9964-y