Abstract
Financial incentives influence behavioural changes and the current review was done to assess the effectiveness of this intervention in improving HIV care continuum. We conducted systematic searches in MEDLINE, Cochrane library, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar from inception until July 2019. We carried out a meta-analysis with random-effects model quantifying inconsistency (I2) for heterogeneity and reported pooled Risk Ratios (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). A total of 22 studies with 38,119 participants were included. All the six outcomes showed better results in financial incentive arm compared to standard care with statistical significance in three outcomes—HIV testing uptake (pooled RR: 2.42; 95%CI 1.06–5.54; I2 = 100%), antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence (pooled RR: 1.30; 95%CI 1.13–1.50; I2 = 44%), and continuity in care (pooled RR: 1.24; 95%CI 1.09–1.41; I2 = 86%). To summarize, financial incentives can be helpful in improving the uptake of HIV testing, ART adherence and continuity of care while it was better for achieving viral load suppression among studies conducted in high-income countries.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory data. HIV/AIDS [Internet]. 2018. https://www.who.int/gho/hiv/en/. Accessed 12 Sept 2019.
GBD 2016 DALYs and HALE Collaborators. Global, regional, and national disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for 333 diseases and injuries and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet. 2017;390(10100):1260–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32130-X.
Gardner EM, McLees MP, Steiner JF, Del Rio C, Burman WJ. The spectrum of engagement in HIV care and its relevance to test-and-treat strategies for prevention of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(6):793–800.
Mayer K, Gazzard B, Zuniga JM, et al. Controlling the HIV epidemic with antiretrovirals: IAPAC consensus statement on treatment as prevention and preexposure prophylaxis. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2013;12(3):208–16.
Kay ES, Batey DS, Mugavero MJ. The HIV treatment cascade and care continuum: updates, goals, and recommendations for the future. AIDS Res Ther. 2016;13:35.
UNAIDS. Understanding fast-track: accelerating action to end the AIDS epidemic by 2030. Geneva, Switzerland: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, 2015.
UNAIDS. Global HIV & AIDS statistics—2019 fact sheet [Internet] 2019. https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2019/UNAIDS_FactSheet. Accessed 12 Sept 2019.
WHO. Consolidated guidelines on general HIV care and the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection: recommendations for a public health approach. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013.
WHO. Policy brief: consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection: what’s new. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2015.
Seal KH, Kral AH, Lorvick J, McNees A, Gee L, Edlin BR. A randomized controlled trial of monetary incentives vs. outreach to enhance adherence to the hepatitis B vaccine series among injection drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003;71:127–31.
Jurgensen M, Sandoy IF, Michelo C, Fylkesnes K, Mwangala S, Blystad A. The seven Cs of the high acceptability of home-based VCT: results from a mixed methods approach in Zambia. Soc Sci Med. 2013;97:210–9.
O’Donoghue T, Rabin M. Doing it now or later. Am Econ Rev. 1999;89:103–24.
Kranzer K, Simms V, Bandason T, et al. Economic incentives for HIV testing by adolescents in Zimbabwe: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet HIV. 2018;5(2):e79–86.
Thirumurthy H, Ndyabakira A, Marson K, et al. Financial incentives for achieving and maintaining viral suppression among HIV-positive adults in Uganda: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet HIV. 2019;6(3):e155–e163163.
Choko AT, Corbett EL, Stallard N, et al. HIV self-testing alone or with additional interventions, including financial incentives, and linkage to care or prevention among male partners of antenatal care clinic attendees in Malawi: an adaptive multi-arm, multi-stage cluster randomised trial. PLoS Med. 2019;16(1):e1002719.
Booth A, Clarke M, Dooley G, Ghersi D, Moher D, Petticrew M, Stewart L. The nuts and bolts of PROSPERO: an international prospective register of systematic reviews. Syst Rev. 2012;1(1):2.
Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6(7):e1000097.
Higgins JP, Altman DG, Gøtzsche PC, et al. The Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ. 2011;343:d5928.
Rao G, Lopez-Jimenez F, Boyd J, et al. Methodological standards for meta-analyses and qualitative systematic reviews of cardiac prevention and treatment studies: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017;136:e172–e194194.
Higgins JP, Green S, editors. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions. Amsterdam: Wiley; 2011.
Sibanda EL, Tumushime M, Mufuka J, Mavedzenge SN, Gudukeya S, Bautista-Arredondo S, et al. Effect of non-monetary incentives on uptake of couples' counselling and testing among clients attending mobile HIV services in rural Zimbabwe: a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet Glob Health. 2017;5(9):e907–e915915.
Alsan M, Beshears J, Armstrong WS, et al. A commitment contract to achieve virologic suppression in poorly adherent patients with HIV/AIDS. AIDS. 2017;31(12):1765–9.
Barnett PG, Sorensen JL, Wong W, Haug NA, Hall SM. Effect of incentives for medication adherence on health care use and costs in methadone patients with HIV. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009;100(1–2):115–21.
Montoy JCC, Dow WH, Kaplan BC. Cash incentives versus defaults for HIV testing: a randomized clinical trial. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(7):e0199833.
Saxena P, Hall EA, Prendergast M. A randomized study of incentivizing HIV testing for parolees in community aftercare. AIDS Educ Prev. 2016;28(2):117–27.
Elul B, Lamb MR, Lahuerta M, et al. A combination intervention strategy to improve linkage to and retention in HIV care following diagnosis in Mozambique: a cluster-randomized study. PLoS Med. 2017;14(11):e1002433.
Maughan-Brown B, Smith P, Kuo C, et al. A conditional economic incentive fails to improve linkage to care and antiretroviral therapy initiation among HIV-positive adults in Cape Town, South Africa. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2018;32(2):70–8.
McNairy ML, Lamb MR, Gachuhi AB, et al. Effectiveness of a combination strategy for linkage and retention in adult HIV care in Swaziland: the Link4Health cluster randomized trial. PLoS Med. 2018;14(11):e1002420.
Metsch LR, Feaster DJ, Gooden L, et al. Effect of patient navigation with or without financial incentives on viral suppression among hospitalized patients with HIV infection and substance use: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2016;316(2):156–70.
Solomon SS, Srikrishnan AK, Vasudevan CK, et al. Voucher incentives improve linkage to and retention in care among HIV-infected drug users in Chennai, India. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(4):589–95.
Stitzer ML, Hammond AS, Matheson T, et al. Enhancing patient navigation with contingent incentives to improve healthcare behaviors and viral load suppression of persons with HIV and substance use. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2018;32(7):288–96.
Linnemayr S, Stecher C, Mukasa B. Behavioral economic incentives to improve adherence to antiretroviral medication. AIDS. 2017;31(5):719.
McCoy SI, Njau PF, Fahey C, et al. Cash versus food assistance to improve adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected adults in Tanzania: a randomized trial. AIDS (London, England). 2017;31(6):815.
Rigsby MO, Rosen MI, Beauvais JE, et al. Cue-dose training with monetary reinforcement. J Gen Intern Med. 2000;15(12):841–7.
Rosen MI, Dieckhaus K, McMahon TJ, et al. Improved adherence with contingency management. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2007;21(1):30–40.
Sorensen JL, Haug NA, Delucchi KL, et al. Voucher reinforcement improves medication adherence in HIV-positive methadone patients: a randomized trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;88(1):54–63.
Yotebieng M, Thirumurthy H, Moracco KE, et al. Conditional cash transfers to increase retention in PMTCT care, antiretroviral adherence, and postpartum virological suppression: a randomized controlled trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;72(Suppl 2):S124.
Weiser SD, Bukusi EA, Steinfeld RL, et al. Shamba maisha: randomized controlled trial of an agricultural and finance intervention to improve HIV health outcomes in Kenya. AIDS. 2015;29(14):1889.
Javanbakht M, Prosser P, Grimes T, Weinstein M, Farthing C. Efficacy of an individualized adherence support program with contingent reinforcement among nonadherent HIV-positive patients: results from a randomized trial. J Int Assoc Phys AIDS Care. 2006;5(4):143–50.
Rangarajan S, Donn JC, le Giang T, Bui DD, Hung Nguyen H, Tou PB, et al. Factors associated with HIV viral load suppression on antiretroviral therapy in Vietnam. J Virus Erad. 2016;2(2):94–101.
Ahmed D, Roy D, Cassol E. Examining relationships between metabolism and persistent inflammation in HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy. Mediat Inflamm. 2018;2018:6238978.
Bassett IV, Wilson D, Taaffe J, Freedberg KA. Financial incentives to improve progression through the HIV treatment cascade. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2015;10(6):451–63.
Choko AT, Candfield S, Maheswaran H, Lepine A, Corbett EL, Fielding K. The effect of demand-side financial incentives for increasing linkage into HIV treatment and voluntary medical male circumcision: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials in low-and middle-income countries. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(11):e0207263.
Kanters S, Park JJ, Chan K, et al. Interventions to improve adherence to antiretroviral therapy: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet HIV. 2017;4(1):e31–40.
Swann M. Economic strengthening for retention in HIV care and adherence to antiretroviral therapy: a review of the evidence. AIDS Care. 2018;30(sup3):99–125.
Funding
None.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Preparation of protocol, literature review data extraction and analysis were performed by YK, TR and MS. The first draft of the manuscript was written by YK and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
None declared.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Krishnamoorthy, Y., Rehman, T. & Sakthivel, M. Effectiveness of Financial Incentives in Achieving UNAID Fast-Track 90-90-90 and 95-95-95 Target of HIV Care Continuum: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. AIDS Behav 25, 814–825 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-03038-2
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-03038-2