Belgium, Canada and Switzerland: Are There Differences in the Contributions of Selected Variables on Self-Reported Property-Related and Violent Delinquency?

Abstract

Three countries with different sociodemographic characteristics and different school and criminal justice systems are compared using data from Belgium, Switzerland, and Canada with respect to juvenile delinquency as measured by the International Self-Reported Delinquency questionnaire (ISRD-2). Following a brief presentation of descriptive statistics of the different samples, multivariate analyses including basic variables such as gender, age, family composition, immigrant status, school attachment, victimisation, and family and peer relationships make up the core of this study. The contributions of these selected variables are then compared between the participating countries. Between these three countries we find similarities and differences in explaining self-reported property-related and violent delinquency. In the final part of the article, the implications of these findings are discussed.

Appendix

Demographic variables sex, age (from 12 to 17 years) and immigration background (native, second- and first-generation immigrant) have been included. We consider as “a native” any respondent born in the country whose parents were also born in the country. A respondent born abroad is also considered as a “native” if both his/her parents were born in the country. A “second-generation migrant” is a person born in the country with at least one of his parents born abroad. A “first-generation migrant” is a respondent who was born abroad with one or both parents born abroad as well.

Family-related variables are the following: family composition and attachment to the father and to the mother. Youth were coded to one of two family types according to their responses to a series of questions about with whom they lived. The final variable contains only two categories: intact family (live with their mother and father) and broken home. Attachment to the father measures whether or not youths reported getting along with their father. The youths were asked “How do you usually get along with the man you live with (your father or stepfather)”? A dichotomous variable was created (strong vs weak relationship). The same question was asked for the relationship with the mother: Attachment to the mother.

Four school-related variables were considered: the attachment to school measures feelings towards school. It is measured by a 3-element-scale: would miss school, considerate teachers and I like my school. The variable violent school environment is measured by 4 items: there is stealing, fighting, vandalism or drug use at school. Both variables are continuous. Truancy (skipping school) measures if and how often youth reported skipping school during the 12 months prior to the survey. Grade refers to the school year in which the student is enrolled. The variable includes 7th, 8th and 9th grade, and 7th grade has been used as the reference category.

Two individual variables have been included in analyses. The self-control scale is composed of 12 items based on four subscales: impulsivity (e.g. “I act spontaneously without thinking”), risk seeking (e.g. “I like to test my limits by taking risks”), self-centred (e.g. “If things I do upset people, it’s their problem not mine”), volatile temper (e.g. “I lose my temper pretty easily”). Attitude towards violence is a scale composed of five items. Both variables are continuous, with large scores indicating low self control and very positive attitude to violence.

Four lifestyle related variables were used: Alcohol consumption measures whether or not youths reported having drunk alcohol (wine, beer, breezers or strong spirits). Drugs consumption takes into account substances such as marijuana/hash, XTC, speed, LSD, heroin or cocaine. Delinquent friends measures whether or not youth reported having delinquent friends. Youth were asked if they have friends who ever have committed property-related or violent delinquency. Going out at night is a variable obtained from one question asking whether parents give a time to be home by to the youth when he or she goes out at night. The possible answers were “I don’t go out”, “no time given”, “yes, a time is given”. In our analyses, this variable has been dichotomised into “I don’t go out at night” vs “I do go out at night”. Another question concerns with whom the youth spends most of his or her free time. Three categories have been created: alone, with the family and with friends. Victimization measures whether or not youth reported having been hit, stolen from, or threatened in the last 12 months. Discrimination measures whether or not students reported ever having been a victim of discrimination (i.e. treated badly because of their religion or the language they speak or because of the colour of their skin).