Abstract
The present research is to study hydrochemistry and water quality of Rewalsar Lake during pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons. The Ca2+ and Na+ are observed as the dominant cations from pre- to post-monsoon season. On the other hand, HCO3− and Cl− are observed dominant anions during pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons, whereas HCO3− and SO42− during post-monsoon season. The comparison of alkaline earth metals with alkali metals and total cations (Tz+) has specified that the carbonate weathering is the dominant source of major ions in the water of lake. The HCO3− is noticed to be mainly originated from carbonate/calcareous minerals during monsoon and post-monsoon, but through silicate minerals during pre-monsoon. The SO42− in Rewalsar Lake is produced by the dissolution of calcite and dolomite etc. The alkali metals and Cl− in the lake can be attributed to the silicate weathering as well as halite dissolution and anthropogenic activities. Certain other parameters like NO3−, NH4+, F−, and Br− are mainly a result of anthropogenic activities. The alkaline earth metals are found to surpass over alkali metals, whereas weak acid (HCO3−) exceed to strong acid (SO42−). The Piper diagram has shown Ca2+–HCO3− type of water during all the seasons. The water quality index has indicated that the water quality of the lake is unsuitable for drinking from pre- to post-monsoon. Several parameters like salinity index, sodium adsorption ratio, sodium percent, residual sodium carbonate, magnesium hazard etc. have revealed the water of Rewalsar Lake as suitable for irrigation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aghazadeh, H., & Mogaddam, A. A. (2011). Investigation of hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater in the Harzandat aquifer, Northwest of Iran. Environ Monit and Assess, 176(1-4), 183–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1575-4.
Alexakis, D. (2011). Assessment of water quality in the Messolonghi–Etoliko and Neochorio region (West Greece) using hydrochemical and statistical analysis methods. Environ Monit and Assess, 182(1-4), 397–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-1884-2.
Alexakis, D., Gotsis, D., & Giakoumakis, S. (2012). Assessment of drainage water quality in pre- and post-irrigation seasons for supplemental irrigation use. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184(8), 5051–5063. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2321-2.
Alexakis, D., Kagalou, I., & Tsakiris, G. (2013). Assessment of pressures and impacts on surface water bodies of the Mediterranean. Case study: Pamvotis Lake, Greece. Environment and Earth Science, 70(2), 687–698. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-2152-7.
Al-Omran, A. M., EI-Maghraby, S. E., Aly, A. A., Al-Wabel, M. I., Al-Asmari, Z. A., & Nadeem, M. E. (2013). Quality assessment of various bottled waters marketed in Saudi Arabia. Environ Monit and Assess, 185(8), 6397–6406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-3032-z.
Anshumali, & Ramanathan, A. L. (2007). Seasonal variation in the major ion chemistry of Pandoh Lake, Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh, India. Applied Geochemistry, 22(8), 1736–1747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2007.03.045.
APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012). Standard method for the examination of water and wastewater, 22nd edn. Washington, DC:American Public Health Association.
Baba, A., Erees, F. S., Hicsonmez, U., Cam, S., & Ozdilek, H. G. (2008). An assessment of the quality of various bottled mineral water marketed in Turkey. Environ Monit and Assess, 139(1-3), 277–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9833-9.
Bhat, S. A., & Pandit, A. K. (2014). Surface water quality assessment of Wular Lake, a Ramsar site in Kashmir Himalaya, using discriminant analysis and WQI. Journal of Ecosystems, 2014, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/724728.
Bikundia, D. S., & Mohan, D. (2014). Major ion chemistry of the groundwater at the Khoda Village, Gaziabad, India. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.swaqe.2014.12.001.
BIS. (2012). Drinking water specification, 2nd revision. New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.
Bora, M., & Goswami, D. C. (2016). Water quality assessment in terms of water quality index (WQI): case study of the Kolong River, Assam, India. Applied Water Science, 7(6), 3125–3135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0451-y.
Bouwman, A. F., Lee, D. S., Asman, W. A. H., Dentener, F. J. D., Hoek, K. W. V. D., & Olivier, J. G. J. (1997). A global high-resolution emission inventory for ammonia. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 11(4), 561–587. https://doi.org/10.1029/97GB02266.
Carling, G. T., Richard, D. C., Hoven, H., Miller, T., Fernandez, D. P., Rudd, A., Pazmino, E., & Johnson, W. P. (2013). Relationships of surface water, pore water, and sediment chemistry in wetlands adjacent to Great Salt Lake, Utah, and potential impacts on plant community health. Journal Science of the Total Environment, 443, 798–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.11.063.
Chakrapani, G. J. (2002). Water and sediment geochemistry of major Kumaun Himalayan lakes, India. Environmental Geology, 43, 99–107.
Dar, M. A., Sankar, K., & Dar, I. A. (2011). Major ion chemistry and hydrochemical studies of groundwater of parts of Palar river basin, Tamil Nadu, India. Environ Monit and Assess, 176(1-4), 621–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1608-z.
Das, B. K., & Haake, B. G. (2003). Geochemistry of Rewalsar Lake sediment, Lesser Himalaya, India: implications for source-area weathering, provenance and tectonic setting. Geosciences Journal, 07(4), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02919560.
Das, B. K., & Kaur, P. (2001). Major ion chemistry of Renuka Lake and weathering processes, Sirmaur District, Himachal Pradesh, India. Environmental Geology, 40(7), 908–917. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002540100268.
Das, B. K., & Kaur, P. (2007). Geochemistry of surface and subsurface waters of Rewalsar Lake, Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh: constraints on weathering and erosion. Journal Geological Society of India, 69(5), 1020–1030.
Deka, J. P., Tayengi, G., Singh, S., Hoque, R. R., Prakash, A., & Kumar, M. (2015). Source and seasonal variation in the major ion chemistry of two eastern Himalayan high altitude lakes, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 08(12), 10597–10610. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-015-1964-7.
Dinka, M. O., Loiskandl, W., & Ndambuki, J. M. (2015). Hydrochemical characterization of various surface water and groundwater resources available in Matahara areas, Fantalle Woreda of Oromiya region. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 03, 444–456.
Gamvroula, D., Alexakis, D., & Stamatis, G. (2013). Diagnosis of groundwater quality and assessment of contamination sources in the Megara basin (Attica, Greece). Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 6(7), 2367–2381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-012-0533-6.
Gibbs, R. J. (1970). Mechanisms controlling world water chemistry. Science Journal, 170(3962), 1088–1090. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.170.3962.1088.
Good, K. D., & VenBriesen, J. M. (2016). Current and potential future bromide loads from coal-fired power plants in the Allegheny River basin and their effects on downstream concentrations. Environmental Science & Technology, 50(17), 9078–9088. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b01770.
Gupta, S., Nayek, S., & Saha, R. N. (2012). Major ion chemistry and metal distribution in coal mine pit lake contaminated with industrial effluents: constraints of weathering and anthropogenic inputs. Environment and Earth Science, 67(7), 2053–2061. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-1644-9.
Iscen, C. F., Emiroglu, O., Ilhan, S., Arslan, N., Yilmaz, V., & Ahiska, S. (2008). Application of multivariate statistical techniques in the assessment of surface water quality in Uluabat Lake, Turkey. Environ Monit and Assess, 144(1-3), 269–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9989-3.
Islam, S. M. D., Majumder, R. K., Uddin, M. J., Khalil, M. I., & Alam, M. F. (2017). Hydrochemical characteristics and quality assessment of groundwater in Patuakhali District, southern coastal region of Bangladesh. Exposure and Health Journal, 9(1), 43–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0221-y.
Jeelani, G., & Shah, A. Q. (2006). Geochemical characteristics of water and sediment from Dal lake, Kashmir Himalaya: constrains on weathering and anthropogenic activity. Environmental Geology, 50(1), 12–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-005-0168-y.
Jha, S. K., Mishra, V. K., Sharma, D. K., & Damodaran, T. (2011). Fluoride in the environment and its metabolism in humans. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 211, 121–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8011-3_4.
Jindal, R., Thakur, R. K., Singh, U. B., & Ahluwalia, A. S. (2014). Phytoplankton dynamics and species diversity in a shallow eutrophic, natural mid-altitude lake in Himachal Pradesh (India): role of physicochemical factors. Chemistry and Ecology, 30(4), 328–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/02757540.2013.871267.
Kanakiya, R. S., Singh, S. K., & Sharma, J. N. (2014). Determining the water quality index of an urban water body Dal Lake, Kashmir, India. IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology, 08(12), 64–71. https://doi.org/10.9790/2402-081236471.
Khadka, U. R., & Ramanathan, A. L. (2012). Major ion composition and seasonal variation in the Lesser Himalayan lake: case of Begnas Lake of the Pokhara Valley, Nepal. Arabian Journal of Geoscience, 06, 4191–4206.
Kotadiya, N. G., & Acharya, C. A. (2014). An assessment of lake water quality index of Manipu Lake of district Ahmedabad, Gujarat. International Journal of Scientific Research, 03(4), 448–450.
Kozisek, F. (2004). Health risks from drinking demineralized water. In World Health Organization Report–2005, pp. 148–163. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutrientsindw.pdf.
Kumar, V., Rai, S. P., & Singh, O. (2006). Water quantity and quality of Mansar Lake located in Himalayan foothills, India. Journal of Lake and Reservoir Management, 22(3), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/07438140609353896.
Kumar, S. K., Rammohan, V., Sahayam, J. D., & Jeevanandam, M. (2009). Assessment of groundwater quality and hydrogeochemistry of Manimuktha River basin, Tamil Nadu, India. Environ Monit and Assess, 159(1-4), 341–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0633-7.
Li, S., & Zhang, Q. (2010). Major ion chemistry and weathering processes of the Danjiangkou Reservoir, China. Hydrological Sciences Journal – Journal des Sciences Hydrologiques, 55(8), 1385–1395. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2010.530096.
Li, S., Xu, Z., Wang, H., Wang, J., & Zhang, Q. (2009). Geochemistry of the upper Han River basin, China: 3: anthropogenic inputs and chemical weathering to the dissolved load. Chemical Geology, 264(1–4), 89–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2009.02.021.
Li, Z., Nie, X., Zhang, Y., Huang, J., Huang, B., & Zeng, G. (2016). Assessing the influence of water level on schistosomiasis in Dongting Lake region before and after the construction of Three Gorges Dam. Environ Monit and Assess, 188(1), 28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-5033-1.
Liping, Z., Jianting, J. U., Yong, W., Manping, X. I. E., Junbo, W., Ping, P., Xiaolin, Z., & Xiao, L. (2010). Composition, spatial distribution, and environmental significance of water ions in Pumayum Co catchment, southern Tibet. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 20(1), 109–120.
Mastoi, G. M., Shah, S. G. S. S., & Khuhawar, M. Y. (2008). Assessment of water quality of Manchar Lake in Sindh (Pakistan). Environ Monit and Assess, 141(1-3), 287–296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9895-8.
Meena, N. K., Prakasam, M., Bhushan, R., Sarkar, S., Diwate, P., & Banerji, U. (2017). Last-five-decade heavy metal pollution records from the Rewalsar Lake, Himachal Pradesh, India. Environment and Earth Science, 76(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-6303-0.
Meybeck, M. (1987). Global chemical weathering of surficial rocks estimated from river dissolved loads. American Journal of Science, 287(5), 401–428. https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.287.5.401.
Mills, B. (2003). Interpreting water analysis for crop and pasture, File No. FS0334. Toowoomba: DPI’s Agency for Food and Fiber Sciences.
Mora, A., Mahlknecht, J., Lagarde, L. R., & Antonio, A. H. (2017). Assessment of major ions and trace elements in groundwater supplied to the Monterrey metropolitan area, Nuevo León, Mexico. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 189(8), 394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6096-y.
Najar, I. A., & Khan, A. B. (2012). Assessment of water quality and identification of pollution sources of three lakes in Kashmir, India, using multivariate analysis. Environment and Earth Science, 66(8), 2367–2378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1458-1.
Othman, M. S., Lim, E. C., & Mushrifah, I. (2007). Water quality changes in Chini Lake, Pahang, West Malaysia. Environ Monit and Assess, 131(1-3), 279–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-006-9475-3.
Piper, A. M. (1944). A graphic procedure in geochemical interpretation of water analyses. Eos Transactions American Geophysical Union, 25(6), 914–923. https://doi.org/10.1029/TR025i006p00914.
Pius, A., Jerome, C., & Sharma, N. (2012). Evaluation of groundwater quality in and around Peenya industrial area of Bangalore, South India using GIS techniques. Environ Monit and Assess, 184(7), 4067–4077. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2244-y.
Ravikumar, P., Somashekar, R. K., & Angami, M. (2011). Hydrochemistry and evaluation of groundwater suitability for irrigation and drinking purposes in the Markandeya River basin, Belgaum District, Karnataka State, India. Environ Monit and Assess, 173(1-4), 459–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1399-2.
Ravikumar, P., Mehmood, M. A., & Somashekar, R. K. (2013). Water quality index to determine the surface water quality of Sankey tank and Mallathahalli Lake, Bangalore urban district, Karnataka, India. Applied Water Science, 03(1), 247–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-013-0077-2.
Reddy, A. G. S., & Kumar, K. N. (2010). Identification of the hydrogeochemical processes in groundwater using major ion chemistry: a case study of Penna–Chitravathi river basins in Southern India. Environ Monit and Assess, 170(1), 365–382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-1239-4.
Richards, L. A. (Ed.) (1954). Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils (p. 160). USDA. Hand Book, No. 60.
Romanic, S. H., Gaspic, Z. K., Bituh, T., Zuzul, S., Dvorscak, M., Fingler, S., Jurasovic, J., Klincic, D., Morovic, G., Orct, T., Rinkovec, J., & Stipicevic, S. (2016). The impact of multiple anthropogenic contaminants on the terrestrial environment of the Plitvice Lakes National Park, Croatia. Environ Monit and Assess, 188(1), 27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-5030-4.
Saleem, M., Jeelani, G., & Shah, R. F. (2015). Hydrogeochemistry of Dal Lake and the potential for present, future management by using facies, ionic ratios, and statistical analysis. Environment and Earth Science, 74(4), 3301–3313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4361-3.
Saluja, R., & Garg, J. K. (2017). Trophic state assessment of Bhindawas Lake, Haryana, India. Environ Monit and Assess, 189(1), 32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5735-z.
Sarkar, S., Prakasam, M., Banerji, U. S., Bhushan, R., Gaury, P. K., & Meena, N. K. (2016). Rapid sedimentation history of Rewalsar Lake, Lesser Himalaya, India during the last fifty years—estimated using Cs and Pb dating techniques: a comparative study with other north-western Himalayan lakes. Himalayan Geology, 37(1), 1–7.
Sharma, C., & Chauhan, M. S. (1988). Studies in the late-quaternary vegetational history in Himachal Pradesh. 4. Rewalsar Lake II. Pollen et Spores, 30(3–4), 395–407.
Sharma, S., Bajracharya, R. M., Sitaula, B. K., & Merz, J. (2005). Water quality in Central Himalaya. Current Science, 89(5), 774–786.
Sharma, A., Singh, A. K., & Kumar, K. (2012). Environmental geochemistry and quality assessment of surface and subsurface water of Mahi River basin, Western India. Environment and Earth Science, 65(4), 1231–1250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1371-7.
Sheikh, J. A., Jeelani, G., Gavali, R. S., & Shah, R. A. (2014). Weathering and anthropogenic influences on the water and sediment chemistry of Wular Lake, Kashmir Himalaya. Environment and Earth Science, 71(6), 2837–2846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2661-z.
Singh, A. K., & Hasnain, S. I. (1998). Major ion chemistry and weathering control in a high altitude basin: Alaknanda River, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 43(6), 825–843. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626669809492181.
Singh, K. P., Malik, A., Mohan, D., Singh, V. K., & Sinha, S. (2006). Evaluation of groundwater quality in northern indo-gangetic alluvium region. Environ Monit and Assess, 112(1-3), 211–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-006-0357-5.
Singh, A. K., Mondal, G. C., Kumar, S., Singh, T. B., Tewari, B. K., & Sinha, A. (2008a). Major ion chemistry, weathering processes and water quality assessment in upper catchment of Damodar River basin, India. Environmental Geology, 54(4), 745–758. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0860-1.
Singh, O., Rai, S. P., Kumar, V., Sharma, M. K. & Choubey, V. K. (2008b). Water quality and eutrophication status of some lakes of the Western Himalayan region (India). In Proceeding of Taal-2007: The 12th World Lake Conference , 286, p. 291.
Singh, V. K., Bikundia, D. S., Sarswat, A., & Mohan, D. (2012). Groundwater quality assessment in the village of Lutfullapur Nawada, Loni, District Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. Environ Monit and Assess, 184(7), 4473–4488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2279-0.
Singh, V. B., Ramanathan, A. L., & Mandal, A. (2016). Hydrogeochemistry of high-altitude lake: a case study of the Chandra Tal, Western Himalaya, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 9(4), 308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-016-2358-1.
Stallard, R. F., & Edmond, J. M. (1983). Geochemistry of Amazon. 2 The influence of geology and weathering environment on the dissolved load. Journal of Geophysical Research, 88(C14), 9671–9688. https://doi.org/10.1029/JC088iC14p09671.
Stamatis, G., Alexakis, D., Gamvroula, D., & Migiros, G. (2011). Groundwater quality assessment in Oropos–Kalamos basin, Attica, Greece. Environment and Earth Science, 64(4), 973–988. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-0914-2.
Sundaray, S. K., Nayak, B. B., & Bhatta, D. (2009). Environmental studies on river water quality with reference to suitability for agricultural purposes: Mahanadi river estuarine system, India—a case study. Environ Monit and Assess, 155(1-4), 227–243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0431-2.
Szabolcs, I., & Darab, C. (1964). The influence of irrigation water of high sodium carbonate content of soils. In Proceedings of 8th International Congress of ISSS, Trans, 2, pp. 803–812.
Vetrimurugan, E., Elango, L., & Rajmohan, N. (2013). Sources of contaminants and groundwater quality in the coastal part of a river delta. International journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 10(3), 473–486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-012-0138-3.
Wilcox, L. V. (1955). Classification and use of irrigation waters. Washington DC: US Dept of Agricul Cir 969.
Winid, B. (2015). Bromine and water quality—selected aspects and future perspectives. Applied Geochemistry, 63, 413–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2015.10.004.
Xiao, J., Jin, Z. D., Zhang, F., & Wang, J. (2012). Solute geochemistry and its sources of the ground waters in the Qinghai Lake catchment, NW China. Journal of Asian Earth Science, 52, 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.02.006.
Xiao, J., Jin, Z., Wang, J., & Zhang, F. (2015). Major ion chemistry, weathering process and water quality of natural waters in the Bosten Lake catchment in an extreme arid region, NW China. Environment and Earth Science, 73(7), 3697–3708. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3657-z.
Yao, Z., Wang, R., Liu, Z., Wu, S., & Jiang, L. (2015). Spatial-temporal patterns of major ion chemistry and its controlling factors in the Manasarovar Basin, Tibet. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 25(6), 687–700. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11442-015-1196-5.
Yaseen, S., Pandit, A. K., & Shah, J. A. (2015). Water quality index of fresh water stream feeding Wular Lake in Kashmir Himalaya, India. International Journal of water Resources and Environmental Engineering, 7(4), 50–57.
Zhang, M., & Liu, X. (2009). Hydrochemistry of salt lakes of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China. Aquatic Geochemistry, 15(1-2), 293–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10498-008-9055-y.
Zhang, Q., Li, Z., Zeng, G., Li, J., Fang, Y., Yuan, Q., Wang, Y., & Ye, F. (2009). Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical techniques in red soil hilly region: a case study of Xiangjiang watershed, China. Environ Monit and Assess, 152(1-4), 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0301-y.
Zhu, B., Yu, J., Qin, X., Rioual, P., Jiang, F., Liu, Z., Mu, Y., Li, H., Ren, X., & Xiong, H. (2013). Identification of rock weathering and environmental control in arid catchments (northern Xinjiang) of Central Asia. Journal of Asian Earth Science, 66, 277–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2013.02.005.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Hon’ble Vice Chancellor, Central university of Himachal Pradesh (CUHP) for his encouragement and support in publishing this manuscript. The authors heartily thank the Director, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), Dehradun for permitting the first author to work in WIHG lab and allowing this manuscript for publication. The authors highly acknowledge Dr. K.B.S. Krishna, Assistant Professor in the Department of English and European Languages, CUHP, for editing the manuscript. The authors acknowledge the support provided by Shri Bansilal, Sarpanch, Rewalsar village, and besides, the local administration of the lake for providing boat facility, permission, and other help during collection of water samples.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gaury, P.K., Meena, N.K. & Mahajan, A.K. Hydrochemistry and water quality of Rewalsar Lake of Lesser Himalaya, Himachal Pradesh, India. Environ Monit Assess 190, 84 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6451-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6451-z