Abstract
Purpose
The extant research has not been consistent in the way motivation is conceptualized and measured in learning contexts, with prior research utilizing five different types of motivation derived from three theoretical frameworks—self-determination theory, expectancy theory, and the expectancy-value model. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether type of motivation impacts the motivation–training outcome relationships.
Design/Methodology
We conducted a meta-analysis investigating the impact of motivation type (i.e., intrinsic motivation, motivation to learn, motivation to transfer, expectancy motivation, and task value) on four training outcomes. The review of the literature yielded 136 independent samples and a total of 25,012 trainees. Relative weights analysis was also used.
Findings
Results suggest that all types of motivation had stronger relationships with trainee reactions than with declarative knowledge, initial skill acquisition, or transfer. Yet, there was variability in the strength of the motivation–training outcome relationships across motivation type.
Implications
We recommend that motivation to learn be used to predict trainee reactions, declarative knowledge, and initial skill acquisition; motivation to transfer should be measured when predicting distal post-training outcomes (i.e., transfer of training). Although this recommendation may seem intuitive, clearly prior research/practice has used other motivation types in the prediction of these training outcomes. Accordingly, we advise that measures of motivation to learn and motivation to transfer be used more uniformly.
Originality/Value
This is the first study to meta-analytically test whether the relationship between motivation and training outcomes varies based on the type of motivation utilized.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Although the word “type” is used to refer to the various motivations that have been assessed in the training literature, the intent of this meta-analysis is not to develop a typology of training motivation with hard and fast distinctions between the various motivations. Indeed, there are points of overlap between the motivations measured, which are noted in Table 1. The word type is used for the purpose of creating clarity in writing.
The overall motivation relationships were chosen due to a reduced number of samples when dividing within motivation type. Because of the generally non-significant findings and to save journal space, we do not report these results in full. A copy of the results can be obtained from the first author upon request.
References
References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis
Ackerman, P. L. (1987). Individual differences in skill learning: An integration of psychometric and information processing perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 3–27.
*Al-Ammar, S. (1994). The influence of individual and organizational characteristics on training motivation and effectiveness. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University at Albany, NY.
*Al-Ansari, E. M. (2005). The dynamic interplay of student motivation and cognition in the College of Education students at Kuwait University. Social Behavior and Personality, 33, 341–350.
Anderson, J. R. (1982). Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review, 89, 369–406.
*Arnold, H. J. (1985). Task performance, perceived competence, and attributed causes of performance as determinants of intrinsic motivation. Academy of Management Journal, 28, 876–888.
Arthur, W, Jr, Bennett, W, Jr, Edens, P. S., & Bell, S. T. (2003). Effectiveness of training in organizations: A meta-analysis of design and evaluation features. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 234–245.
*Axtell, C. M., Maitlis, S., & Yearta, S. K. (1997). Predicting immediate and longer-term transfer of training. Personnel Review, 26, 201–213.
Baldwin, T. T., Ford, J. K., & Blume, B. D. (2009). Transfer of training 1988-2008: An updated review and new agenda for future research. In G. P. Hodgkinson & J. K. Ford (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 41–70). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
*Baldwin, T. T., Magjuka, R. J., & Loher, B. T. (1991). The perils of participation: Effects of choice of training on training motivation and learning. Personnel Psychology, 44, 51–65.
*Barker, J. R. (1997). An evaluation of the effects of self-regulated learning on USMLE Step 1 scores at the University of Mississippi School of Medicine. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN.
Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J. (2002). When and where do we apply what we learn?: A taxonomy for far transfer. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 612–637.
Beal, D. J., Corey, D. M., & Dunlap, W. P. (2002). On the bias of Huffcutt and Arthur’s (1995) procedure for identifying outliers in the meta-analysis of correlations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 583–589.
*Bell, B. S., & Ford, J. K. (2007). Reactions to skill assessment: The forgotten factor in explaining motivation to learn. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 18, 33–62.
*Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2008). Active learning: Effects of core training design elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 296–316.
*Bell, B. S., & Roberson, Q. M. (2006). [Diversity training research.] Unpublished raw data.
*Bembenutty, H. (2007). Self-regulation of learning and academic delay of gratification: Gender and ethnic differences among college students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 18, 586–616.
Blume, B. D., Ford, J. K., Baldwin, T. T., & Huang, J. L. (2010). Transfer of training: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Management, 36, 1065–1105.
*Bourgeois, N. T. (2007). Error training: An examination of metacognition, emotion control, intrinsic motivation, and knowledge as mediators of performance effects. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.
*Brown, K. G. (2005a). A field study of employee e-learning activity and outcomes. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 16, 465–480.
Brown, K. G. (2005b). An examination of the structure and nomological network of trainee reactions: A closer look at “smile sheets”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 991–1001.
*Brown, K. G., Rietz, T., & Sugrue, B. (2005). The effects of videoconferencing, class size, and learner characteristics on training outcomes. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 18, 59–82.
*Burke, L. A. (1997). Improving positive transfer: A test of relapse prevention training on transfer outcomes. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 8, 115–128.
Burke, L. A., & Moore, J. E. (2003). A perennial dilemma in OB education: Engaging the traditional student. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2, 37–52.
*Caldwell, E. R. (2006). A comparative study of three instructional modalities in a computer programming course: Traditional instruction, Web-based instruction, and online instruction. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina, Greensboro.
Campbell, J. P. (1989). The agenda for theory and research. In I. Goldstein (Ed.), Training and development in organizations (pp. 469–486). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
*Campbell, M. M. (2000). Motivational strategies, learning strategies, and the academic performance of African-American students in a college business environment: A correlational study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale-Davie, FL.
*Campbell, M., & Beier, M. E. (2006). Examining knowledge structure development and predictors of performance. Poster presented at the 21st Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Dallas, TX.
*Chesebro, J. L., & McCroskey, J. C. (2001). The relationship of teacher clarity and immediacy with student state receiver apprehension, affect, and cognitive learning. Communication Education, 50, 59–68.
Chiaburu, D. S., & Lindsay, D. R. (2008). Can do or will do? The importance of self-efficacy and instrumentality for training transfer. Human Resource Development International, 11, 199–206.
*Chiaburu, D., & Tekleab, A. (2005). Individual and contextual influences on multiple dimensions of training effectiveness. Journal of European Industrial Training, 29, 604–626.
*Christophel, D. M. (1990). The relationships among teacher immediacy behaviors, student motivation, and learning. Communication Education, 39, 323–340.
*Chuang, A., Liao, W.-C., & Tai, W.-T. (2005). An investigation of individual and contextual factors influencing training variables. Social Behavior and Personality, 33, 159–174.
*Clarke, R. B. (2006). Undergraduate mathematic students: How do differences in motivation and learning strategy use affect performance? Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Memphis, TN.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159.
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
*Cole, M. S., Feild, H. S., & Harris, S. G. (2004). Student learning motivation and psychological hardiness: Interactive effects on students’ reactions to a management class. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 3, 64–85.
Colquitt, J. A., LePine, J. A., & Noe, R. A. (2000). Toward an integrative theory of training motivation: A meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 678–707.
*Colquitt, J. A., & Simmering, M. S. (1998). Conscientiousness, goal orientation, and motivation to learn during the learning process: A longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 654–665.
*Coyne, T. H. (2008). Examining the systemic influences of trainee, training design and work environment characteristics on learning, retention, and transfer. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, New York.
Dalton, D. R., Aguinis, H., Dalton, C. A., Bosco, F. A., & Pierce, C. A. (2012). Revisiting the file drawer problem in meta-analysis: An empirical assessment of published and non-published correlation matrices. Personnel Psychology, 65, 221–249.
*Debowski, S., Wood, R. E., & Bandura, A. (2001). Impact of guided exploration and enactive exploration on self-regulatory mechanisms and information acquisition through electronic search. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 1129–1141.
Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (n.d.). Intrinsic motivation inventory. Retrieved May 31, 2009 from http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/measures/intrins.html.
Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26, 325–346.
*Dunigan, B. A. (2003). Motivation and learning strategies of students in distance education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg.
*Essary, V. L. (2001). The influences of self-efficacy on training transfer. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, San Diego.
*Farquharson, F. (2004). A comparison of community college students’ anxiety, motivation, and achievement in two learning models for teaching developmental algebra: Instructor-directed computer mediated model and traditional lecture model. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida, Tampa.
Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. (1967). Human performance. Monteray, CA: Brooks/Cole.
*Frymier, A. (1994). A model of immediacy in the classroom. Communication Quarterly, 42, 133–144.
*Frymier, A. B. (2005). Students’ classroom communication effectiveness. Communication Quarterly, 53, 197–212.
*Garcia, T., & Pintrich, P. R. (1996). The effects of autonomy on motivation and performance in the college classroom. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21, 477–486.
*Gardner, R. C., Moorcroft, R., & Metford, J. (1989). Second language learning in an immersion programme: Factors influencing acquisition and retention. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 8, 287–305.
*Gardner, R. C., Tremblay, P. F., & Masgoret, A. (1997). Towards a full model of second language learning: An empirical investigation. Modern Language Journal, 81, 344–362.
*Gaudine, A. P., (1997). A longitudinal field experiment of post-training interventions and transfer of training of the McGill model of nursing. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada.
*Ghetaldi, L. R. (1998). The effect of self-modeling on climber self-efficacy, motivation, actual and perceived rock climbing skills, and knowledge in beginning rock climbers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, Greeley.
Goldstein, I. L., & Ford, J. K. (2002). Training in organizations: Needs assessment, development, and evaluation (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
*Gravill, J. (2004). Self-regulated learning strategies and computer software training. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Western Ontario, Ontario, Canada.
*Green, E. C. (2002). The influence of individual and work environment characteristics on trainee motivation and training effectiveness measures. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Carolina State University, Raleigh.
*Griffith, S. L. (1997). The relationship between learning strategies and academic achievement in community college engineering technology students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of San Francisco, CA.
*Guerrero, S., & Sire, B. (2001). Motivation to train from the workers’ perspective: Example of French companies. International Journal of Human Resources Management, 12, 988–1004.
*Guzley, R. M., Avanzino, S., & Bor, A. (2001). Simulated computer-mediated/video-interactive distance learning: A test of motivation, interaction satisfaction, delivery, learning and perceived effectiveness. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 6. Retrieved November 8, 2006 from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol6/issue3/guzley.html.
*Handler, C. A. (1999). The influence of climate for belief in the overseas mission on cross-cultural training effectiveness. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.
Harackiewicz, J., & Sansone, C. (1991). Goals and intrinsic motivation: You can get there from here. In P. R. Pintrich & M. L. Maehr (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Goals and self-regulatory processes (pp. 21–49). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Hershcovis, M., Turner, N., Barling, J., Arnold, K., Dupre, K., Inness, M., et al. (2007). Predicting workplace aggression: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 228–238.
*Hess, J. A., & Smythe, M. J. (2001). Is teacher immediacy related to student cognitive learning? Communication Studies, 52, 197–219.
Holton, E. F, I. I. I. (1996). The flawed four-level evaluation model. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 7, 5–21.
Holton, E. F, I. I. I., Bates, R. A., & Ruona, W. E. A. (2000). Development of a generalized learning transfer system inventory. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11, 333–360.
*Howey, S. C. (1999). The relationship between motivation and academic success of community college freshman orientation students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Kansas State University, Manhattan.
*Hsu, J. (1997). Value, expectancy, metacognition, resource management, and academic achievement: A structural model of self-regulated learning in a distance education context. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles.
Huffcutt, A. I., & Arthur, W. (1995). Development of a new outlier statistic for meta–analytic data. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 327–334.
Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (2004). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
*Iverson, K. M., Colky, D. L., & Cyboran, V. (2005). E-learning takes the lead: An empirical investigation of learner differences in online and classroom delivery. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 18(4), 5–18.
Johnson, J. W. (2000). A heuristic method for estimating the relative weight of predictor variables in multiple regression. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 35, 1–19.
Johnson, J. W. (2001). The relative importance of task and contextual performance dimensions to supervisor judgments of overall performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 984–996.
*Justice, E. M., & Dornan, T. M. (2001). Metacognitive differences between traditional-age and nontraditional-age college students. Adult Education Quarterly, 51, 236–249.
Keith, N., & Frese, M. (2008). Effectiveness of error management training: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 59–69.
Kirkpatrick, D. (1976). Evaluation of training. In R. Craig (Ed.), Training and development handbook: A guide to human resource development (3rd ed., pp. 301–319). New York: McGraw Hill.
Klehe, U.-C., & Anderson, N. (2007). Working hard and working smart: Motivation and ability during typical and maximum performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 978–992.
*Klein, H. J., Noe, R. A., & Wang, C. (2006). Motivation to learn and course outcomes: The impact of delivery mode, learning goal orientation, and perceived barriers and enablers. Personnel Psychology, 59, 665–702.
Kontoghiorghes, C. (2004). Reconceptualizing the learning transfer conceptual framework: Empirical validation of a new systemic model. International Journal of Training and Development, 8, 210–221.
Kraiger, K., Ford, J. K., & Salas, E. (1993). Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 311–328.
*Kubeck, J., Miller-Albrecht, S., & Murphy, M. (1999). Finding information on the World Wide Web: Exploring older adults’ exploration. Educational Gerontology, 25, 167–183.
*Kuchinke, K. P. (2000). The role of feedback in management training settings. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11, 381–401.
*Kuo, Y. (2004). Assessment of students’ motivation to use computer tools in a web enhanced counseling course. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, West Virginia University, Morgantown.
LeBreton, J. (n.d.). SPSS syntax file for conducting relative weight analysis based on a correlation matrix. Retrieved August 8, 2014 from http://www1.psych.purdue.edu/~jlebreto/downloads.html.
*Lee, L. H. (1998). Goal orientation, goal setting, and academic performance in college students: An integrated model of achievement motivation in school settings. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles.
*Lewis, J. P. (2006). Effects of self-regulated learning on metacognitive strategies, academic performance, and transfer of preservice teachers in an educational technology class. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of South Alabama, Mobile.
*Long, L. K. (2005). The role of trainee reactions in online training. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Kent State University, Kent, OH.
*Lynch, D. J. (2006). Motivational factors, learning strategies and resource management as predictors of course grades. College Student Journal, 40, 423–428.
*MacIntyre, P. D., & Charos, C. (1996). Personality, attitudes, and affect as predictors of second language communication. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 15, 3–26.
*Mangos, P. M., Steele-Johnson, D., & Heintz, P., Jr. (2001). Goal orientation and task complexity cues: Effects on task perceptions, motivation, and performance. Paper presented at the 16th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego, CA.
*Mangos, P. M., Steele-Johnson, D., & Heintz, P., Jr. (2001). Goal orientation effects on task motivation: Moderating influences of ability and task demands. Paper presented at the 16th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego, CA.
*Martineau, J. (1995). A contextual examination of the effectiveness of a supervisory skills training program. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, State College.
*Martocchio, J. J., & Webster, J. (1992). Effects of feedback and cognitive playfulness on performance in microcomputer software training. Personnel Psychology, 45, 553–578.
*Mathieu, J., Tannenbaum, S., & Salas, E. (1992). Influences of individual and situational characteristics on measures of training effectiveness. Academy of Management Journal, 35, 828–847.
*McClendon, R. C. (1993). Construct validity of the MSLQ and cognition as related to motivation and learning strategy use of preservice teachers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Akron, Ohio.
*McKenzie, K., & Gow, K. (2004). Exploring the first year academic achievement of school leavers and mature-age students through structural equation modeling. Learning and Individual Differences, 14, 107–123.
Miller, L. (2014, November). 2014 State of the industry report: Spending on employee training remains a priority. TD Magazine. Retrieved from https://www.td.org/Publications/Magazines/TD/TD-Archive.
*Myers, S. (1997). The role of person, outcome, environmental, and learning variables in training effectiveness. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
*Naumann, W. (1998). Predicting first-semester grade point average using self-regulated learning variables. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
*Nease, A. (2000). Do motives matter? An examination of reasons for attending training and influences on training effectiveness. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rice University, Houston, Texas.
Neves, D. M., & Anderson, J. R. (1981). Knowledge compilation: Mechanisms for the automatization of cognitive skills. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 335–359). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Niemczyk, M. C., & Savenye, W. C. (2001). The relationship of student motivation and self-regulated learning strategies to performance in an undergraduate computer literacy course. Paper presented at the 24th National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Atlanta, GA.
Noe, R. A. (1986). Trainees’ attributes and attitudes: Neglected influences on training effectiveness. Academy of Management Review, 11, 736–749.
Noe, R. A., & Schmitt, N. (1986). The influence of trainee attitudes on training effectiveness: Test of a model. Personnel Psychology, 39, 497–523.
*Noels, K. A., Clement, R., & Pelletier, L. G. (1999). Perceptions of teachers’ communicative style and students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Modern Language Journal, 83, 23–34.
*Orvis, K. A., Horn, D. B., & Belanich, J. (2008). The roles of task difficulty and prior videogame experience on performance and motivation in instructional videogames. Computers in Human Behavior, 24, 2415–2433.
*Orvis, K. A., Horn, D. B., & Belanich, J. (2009a). An examination of the role individual differences play in videogame-based training. Military Psychology, 21, 461–481.
Orvis, K. A., Fisher, S. L., & Wasserman, M. E. (2009b). Power to the people: Using learner control to improve trainee reactions and learning in web-based instructional environments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 960–971.
Payne, S. C., Youngcourt, S. S., & Beaubien, J. M. (2007). A meta-analytic examination of the goal orientation nomological net. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 128–150.
Pintrich, P. R. (1988). A process oriented view of student motivation and cognition. New Directions for Institutional Research, 57, 65–79.
*Pintrich, P. R. (1989). The dynamic interplay of student motivation and cognition in the college classroom. In M. L. Maehr & C. Ames (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Motivation enhancing environments (pp. 117–160). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation. San Diego: Academic Press.
Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 33–40.
*Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W. J. (1993). Reliability and predictive validity of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53, 801–813.
*Poteet, M. L. (1996). The training transfer process: An examination of the role of individual, motivational, and work environmental factors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
*Quiñones, M. (1995). Pretraining context effects: Training assignment as feedback. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 226–238.
*Ramirez, A. E. (2000). Individual, attitudinal, and organizational influences on training effectiveness: A test of Noe’s model. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Tulsa, OK.
*Ray, M. W. (2003). The role of aptitude and achievement in developmental college students’ motivational beliefs, perceptions of self-regulated learning, and accuracy of grade predictions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri, Kansas City.
Rechlin, A. M., Surface, E. A., & Kraiger, K. (2011). The role of post-training performance feedback on trainer ratings. Paper presented at the 26th Annual Meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Chicago, IL.
*Reed, B. J. (2003). Influences upon academic achievement: The relationships among cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies and motivation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI.
*Richmond, V. P. (1990). Communication in the classroom: Power and motivation. Communication Education, 39, 181–195.
Rosenthal, R. (1979). The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 638–641.
*Rowold, J. (2007a). Individual influence on knowledge acquisition in a call center training context in Germany. International Journal of Training and Development, 11, 21–34.
*Rowold, J. (2007b). The impact of personality on training-related aspects of motivation: Test of a longitudinal model. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 18, 9–31.
Ryan, R. M., Koestner, R., & Deci, E. L. (1991). Ego-involved persistence: When free-choice behavior is not intrinsically motivated. Motivation and Emotion, 15, 185–205.
Saari, L. M., Johnson, T. R., McLaughlin, S. D., & Zimmerle, D. M. (1988). A survey of management training and education practices in U.S. companies. Personnel Psychology, 41, 731–743.
Sackett, P. R., Zedeck, S., & Fogli, L. (1988). Relations between measures of typical and maximum job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 482–486.
*Seibert, D. C. (2002). Effects of engagement principles in a video teleconferencing environment on the development of knowledge, motivation, and clinical expertise. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park.
*Sekowski, G. J. (2002). Evaluating training outcomes: Testing an expanded model of training outcome criteria. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, DePaul University, Chicago.
*Shayne, L., & Brown, K. G. (2007). Giving goodies in training: Are there benefits? Paper presented at the 22nd Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, New York.
*Simmering, M. J. (1999). The effects of learner control and individual differences on learning outcomes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
*Sitzmann, T. (2006). [correlations among measures]. Unpublished raw data.
Sitzmann, T. (2006). Final report on NATO school evaluation. Alexandria, VA: Advanced Distributed Learning Co-Laboratory.
Sitzmann, T., Brown, K. G., Casper, W., Ely, K., & Zimmerman, R. D. (2008). A review and meta-analysis of the nomological network of trainee reactions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 280–295.
Sitzmann, T., Ely, K., Brown, K. G., & Bauer, K. N. (2010). Self-assessment of knowledge: A cognitive learning or affective measure? Academy of Management Learning & Education, 9, 169–191.
*Skidmore, R. L. (2003). Predicting final examination grades in a self-paced introductory psychology course: The role of motivational orientation, learning strategies, procrastination, and perception of daily hassles. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association, Biloxi, MS.
*Spiros, R. K. (2003). Individual differences in motivation during distance training: The influence of goal orientation and self-efficacy on learning outcomes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California.
Sugrue, B., & Rivera, R. J. (2005). State of the industry: ASTD’s annual review of trends in workplace learning and performance. Alexandria, VA: ASTD.
*Sullivan, M. E. (2003). Self-regulated learning of medical students: Assessment of a social cognitive model. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles.
*Sullivan, T. A., Sharma, M., & Stacy, R. (2002). Effects of a brief training program for lay health volunteers to facilitate smoking cessation among African Americans. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 47, 4–17.
*Surface, E. A. (2006). [Language acquisition 1]. Unpublished raw data.
*Surface, E. A. (2007). [Language acquisition 2]. Unpublished raw data.
*Surface, E. A. (2008). [Language acquisition 3]. Unpublished raw data.
*Surface, E. A. (2010). [Language acquisition 4]. Unpublished raw data.
*Surface, E. A. (2011a). [Primary data collection 1]. Unpublished raw data.
*Surface, E. A. (2011b). [Primary data collection 2]. Unpublished raw data.
Surface, E. A. (2012). Training needs assessment: Aligning learning and capability with performance requirements and organizational objectives. In M. Wilson, W. Bennett, S. Gibson, & G. Alliger (Eds.), The handbook of work analysis: The methods, systems, applications and science of work measurement in organizations. New York: Routledge.
*Tai, W.-T. (2006). Effects of training framing, general self-efficacy and training motivation on trainees’ training effectiveness. Personnel Review, 35, 51–65.
*Tannenbaum, S. I., Mathieu, J. E., Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (1991). Meeting trainees’ expectations: The influence of training fulfillment on the development of commitment, self-efficacy, and motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 759–769.
Tannenbaum, S. I., & Yukl, G. (1992). Training and development in work organizations. Annual Review of Psychology, 43, 399–441.
*Tellis, J. Y. T. S. (2004). Relationships of individual, situational, motivational, training reaction factors, and motivation to transfer training. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Auburn University, AL.
*Thomas, C., & Gadbois, S. (2007). Academic self-handicapping: The role of self-concept clarity and students’ learning strategies. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 101–119.
*Thompson, C. A. C. (1992). The relationships among teachers’ immediacy behaviors, credibility, and social style and students’ motivation and learning: Comparisons among cultures. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, West Virginia University, Morgantown.
*Tombs, M., & Patrick, J. (2008). Training motivation: Test of a model in a military training setting. Poster presented at the 23rd Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Francisco, CA.
Tonidandel, S., & LeBreton, J. (2011). Relative importance analysis: A useful supplement to regression analysis. Journal of Business & Psychology, 26, 1–9.
*Towler, A. (2002). Effects of trainer expressiveness, seductive details, and trainees’ mastery orientation on training outcomes. Paper presented at the 17th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
*Towler, A. J., & Dipboye, R. L. (2001). Effects of trainer expressiveness, organization, and trainee goal orientation on training outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 4, 664–673.
*Tracey, J. B., & Cardenas, C. G. (1996). Training effectiveness: An empirical examination of factors outside the training context. Hospitality Research Journal, 20, 113–123.
*Tracey, J. B., Hinkin, T. R., Tannenbaum, S., & Mathieu, J. E. (2001). The influence of individual characteristics and the work environment on varying levels of training outcomes. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12, 5–23.
*Tremblay, P. F., Gardner, R. C., & Heipel, G. (2000). A model of the relationships among measures of affect, aptitude, and performance in introductory statistics. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 32, 40–48.
*Tziner, A., & Falbe, C. M. (1993). Training related variables, gender, and training outcomes: A field investigation. International Journal of Psychology, 28, 203–221.
*Tziner, A., Haccoun, R. R., & Kadish, A. (1991). Personal and situational characteristics influencing the effectiveness of transfer of training improvement strategies. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 64, 167–177.
*Van Cleave, A. (1995). Engagement and training outcomes: Extending the concept of motivation to learn. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
*Vansteenkiste, M., Zhou, M., Lens, W., & Soenens, B. (2005). Experience of autonomy and control among Chinese learners: Vitalizing or Immobilizing? Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 468–483.
Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.
*Warr, P., Allan, C., & Birdi, K. (1999). Predicting three levels of training outcome. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72, 351–375.
*Warr, P., & Bunce, D. (1995). Trainee characteristics and the outcomes of open learning. Personnel Psychology, 48, 347–375.
*Warr, P., & Downing, J. (2000). Learning strategies, learning anxiety and knowledge acquisition. British Journal of Psychology, 91, 311–333.
*Watson, M., McSorley, M., Foxcroft, C., & Watson, A. (2004). Exploring the motivation orientation and learning strategies of first year university learners. Tertiary Education and Management, 10, 193–207.
*Webster, J., & Martocchio, J. J. (1993). Turning work into play: Implications for microcomputer software training. Journal of Management, 19, 127–146.
*Weissbein, D. (2000). Improving training effectiveness through motivation: Creating a psychological states intervention. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
*Wise, A., Chang, J., Duffy, T., & Del Valle, R. (2004). The effects of teacher social presence on student satisfaction, engagement, and learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 31, 247–271.
*Yi, M., & Davis, F. (2003). Developing and validating an observational learning model of computer software training and skill acquisition. Information Systems Research, 14, 146–169.
*Zusho, A., Pintrich, P. R., & Coppola, B. (2003). Skill and will: The role of motivation and cognition in the learning of college chemistry. International Journal of Science Education, 25, 1081–1094.
Acknowledgments
This article is based on Kristina N. Bauer’s thesis completed at Old Dominion University. We thank Jose Cortina and Traci Sitzmann for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this article. We would also like to thank Alyssa Chambers, Brandy Parker, and Danny Stanhope for their assistance with the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bauer, K.N., Orvis, K.A., Ely, K. et al. Re-examination of Motivation in Learning Contexts: Meta-analytically Investigating the Role Type of Motivation Plays in the Prediction of Key Training Outcomes. J Bus Psychol 31, 33–50 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-015-9401-1
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-015-9401-1