Abstract
Work is frequently on the minds of employees—even during evenings, weekends, and vacations. The present study is the first comprehensive meta-analysis of off-job work-related thoughts (WRTs; i.e., thoughts employees have about work when they are not at work). We were particularly interested in comparing off-job positive and negative work-related thoughts (PWRTs and NWRTs; i.e., thoughts about positive/negative work experiences or characteristics) to each other and other off-job WRT constructs, which we integrated into a typology. We coded 520 effect sizes from 171 independent samples (N = 58,682) and conducted a random-effects, individual-correction meta-analysis. We found that PWRTs and NWRTs were unrelated, and psychological detachment was negatively related to NWRTs but unrelated to PWRTs. Furthermore, PWRTs and NWRTs exhibited significantly different relationships with various antecedents (e.g., age, negative affectivity) and outcomes (e.g., work engagement, burnout). Compared to PWRTs and NWRTs, psychological detachment and problem-solving pondering exhibited generally weaker relationships with outcomes. NWRTs contaminated with negative affective strains (i.e., negative work-related thoughts and feelings) exhibited generally stronger relationships with outcomes. Overall, our meta-analytic findings indicate that PWRTs and NWRTs are different and underscore the importance of empirically and conceptually separating PWRTs and NWRTs from each other and other off-job WRT constructs. The findings also complement the nascent literature on interventions that target promoting PWRTs and reducing NWRTs.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Change history
26 July 2021
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-021-09761-4
Notes
In contrast with the other psychological detachment measures, Cropley et al.’s (2012) WRRQ includes two items capturing detachment specifically from work issues. See the online supplementary materials for moderator analyses comparing different measures of psychological detachment. Readers, however, should exercise caution when interpreting these comparisons due to the prevalence of subgroups comprising k = 1 samples.
Compared to NA, positive affectivity, which is the tendency to experience positive affective states and moods (Watson et al., 1988), may predispose individuals to engage in more off-job PWRTs; however, the paucity of studies that include both PA measures and WRT measures precludes us from meta-analytically examining such a relationship.
We thank an anonymous reviewer for suggesting multiple ideas discussed here.
We thank an anonymous reviewer for underscoring the importance of accounting for temporal dynamics in future WRT research.
We thank an anonymous reviewer for this insightful point.
References
References with an asterisk (*) were included in the meta-analysis
Accountemps. (2018). Sleepless in Miami, Nashville and New York: Survey finds 44 percent of professionals often lose sleep over work [Press release]. Retrieved from https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/sleepless-in-miami-nashville-and-new-york-survey-finds-44-percent-of-professionals-often-lose-sleep-over-work-300609537.html
*Allen, B. C., Holland, P., & Reynolds, R. (2014). The effect of bullying on burnout in nurses: The moderating role of psychological detachment. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 71, 381–390. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.12489
*Andel, S. A. (2017). The impact of traumatic event exposure in the emergency medical services: A weekly diary study (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (ProQuest No. 10640608)
Ashforth, B. E., Rogers, K. M., Pratt, M. G., & Pradies, C. (2014). Ambivalence in organizations: A multilevel approach. Organization Science, 25, 1453–1478. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2014.0909.
*Auten, D. A. (2020). Examining employees needs at work and home: A self-determination theory perspective (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (ProQuest No. 28002102)
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2017). Job demands–resources theory: Taking stock and looking forward. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22, 273–285. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000056.
Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Sanz-Vergel, A. I. (2014). Burnout and work engagement: The JD–R approach. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1, 389–411. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091235.
*Barber, L. K., & Santuzzi, A. M. (2015). Please respond ASAP: Workplace telepressure and employee recovery. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 20, 172–189. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038278
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5, 323–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.5.4.323.
*Bayne, A. M. (2015). Relationships between incivility and physical health: The mediating effect of sleep and moderating effects of hostile attribution bias and rumination in a sample of nurses (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (ProQuest No. 1604974)
Beal, D. J., Weiss, H., M., Barros, E., & MacDermid, S. M. (2005). An episodic process model of affective influences on performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1054–1068. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1054
*Bennett, A. A., Gabriel, A. S., Calderwood, C., Dahling, J. J., & Trougakos, J. P. (2016). Better together? Examining profiles of employee recovery experiences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101, 1635–1654. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000157
Bennett, A. A., Bakker, A. B., & Field, J. G. (2018). Recovery from work-related effort: A meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 39, 262–275. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2217.
*Binnewies, C., Sonnentag, S., & Mojza, E. J. (2009). Feeling recovered and thinking about the good sides of one’s work. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14, 243–256. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014933
*Bisht, N. S. (2019). A study on the role of work-related rumination in the relationship between job characteristics and burnout. South Asian Journal of Management, 26, 65–87. Retrieved from http://www.sajm-amdisa.org
Bono, J. E., Glomb, T. M., Shen, W., Kim, E., & Koch, A. J. (2013). Building positive resources: Effects of positive events and positive reflection on work stress and health. Academy of Management Journal, 56, 1601–1627. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2011.0272.
Bowling, N. A., Eschleman, K. J., & Wang, Q. (2010). A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83, 815–934. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317909X478557.
Brief, A. P., Butcher, A. H., & Roberson, L. (1995). Cookies, disposition, and job attitudes: The effects of positive mood-inducing events and negative affectivity on job satisfaction in a field experiment. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 62, 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1995.1030.
Bright, D. (2017). How to let go at the end of the workday. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2017/11/how-to-let-go-at-the-end-of-the-workday
Brosschot, J. F., Gerin, W., & Thayer, J. F. (2006). The perseverative cognition hypothesis: A review of worry, prolonged stress-related physiological activation, and health. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 60, 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.06.074.
Brown, S. P., Westbrook, R. A., & Challagalla, G. (2005). Good cope, bad cope: Adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies following a critical negative work event. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 792–798. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.792.
Bryant, F. B. (2003). Savoring Beliefs Inventory (SBI): A scale for measuring beliefs about savouring. Journal of Mental Health, 12, 175–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/0963823031000103489.
Bryant, F. B., Smart, C. M., & King, S. P. (2005). Using the past to enhance the present: Boosting happiness through positive reminiscence. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6, 227–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-3889-4.
*Burch, K. A., & Barnes-Farrell, J. L. (2020). When work is your passenger: Understanding the relationship between work and commuting safety behaviors. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 25, 259–274. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000176
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2020). American Time Use Survey summary—2019 results [Press release]. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/atus.pdf
*Burke, R. J., & El-Kot, G. (2011). Gender similarities in work and well-being outcomes among managers and professionals in Egypt. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 3, 56–74. https://doi.org/10.1108/17566261111114980
Burton, J. P., Holtom, B. C., Sablynski, C. J., Mitchell, T. R., & Lee, T. W. (2010). The buffering effects of job embeddedness on negative shocks. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76, 42–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.06.006.
Campbell, J. P., & Wiernik, B. M. (2015). The modeling and assessment of work performance. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2, 47–74. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111427.
Campbell, J. P., McCloy, R. A., Oppler, S. H., & Sager, C. E. (1993). A theory of job performance. In N. Schmitt & W. C. Borman (Eds.), Personnel selection in organizations (pp. 34–70). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Carstensen, L. L. (2006). The influence of a sense of time on human development. Science, 312, 1913–1915. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1127488.
*Casper, A., & Sonnentag, S. (2020). Feeling exhausted or vigorous in anticipation of high workload? The role of worry and planning during the evening. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 93, 215–242. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12290
*Casper, A., Tremmel, S., & Sonnentag, S. (2019). Patterns of positive and negative work reflection during leisure time: A latent profile analysis. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 24, 527–542. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000142
Charles, S. T., & Carstensen, L. L. (2014). Emotion regulation and aging. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 203–218). New York: Guilford Press.
*Cheng, B. H., & McCarthy, J. M. (2013). Managing work, family, and school roles: Disengagement strategies can help and hinder. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 18, 241–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032507
*Clark, M. A., Smith, R. W., & Haynes, N. J. (2020). The Multidimensional Workaholism Scale: Linking the conceptualization and measurement of workaholism. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000484
Clauss, E., Hoppe, A., O’Shea, D., González Morales, M. G., Steidle, A., & Michel, A. (2018). Promoting personal resources and reducing exhaustion through positive work reflection among caregivers. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 23, 127–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000063.
Colquitt, J. A., Long, D. M., Rodell, J. B., & Halvorsen-Ganepola, M. D. (2015). Adding the "in" to justice: a qualitative and quantitative investigation of the differential effects of justice rule adherence and violation. Journal of Applied Psychology., 100, 278–294. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038131.
Crede, M., Chernyshenko, O. S., Stark, S., Dalal, R. S., & Bashshur, M. (2007). Job satisfaction as mediator: An assessment of job satisfaction’s position within the nomological network. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 80, 515–538. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317906X136180.
*Cropley, M., & Collis, H. (2020). The association between work-related rumination and executive function using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00821
*Cropley, M., Michalianou, G., Pravettoni, G., & Millward, L. J. (2012). The relation of post-work ruminative thinking with eating behaviour. Stress and Health, 28, 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1397
Dahlke, J. A., & Wiernik, B. M. (2019). psychmeta: An R package for psychometric meta-analysis. Applied Psychological Measurement, 33, 415–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621618795933.
*Daniel, S. & Sonnentag, S. (2014). Work to non-work enrichment: The mediating roles of positive affect and positive work reflection. Work & Stress, 28, 49–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2013.872706
*de Bloom, Kinnunen, U., & Korpela, K. (2015). Recovery processes during and after work: Associations with health, work engagement, and job performance. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 57, 732–742. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000000475
*de Jonge, J., Spoor, E., Sonnentag, S., Dormann, C., & van den Tooren, M. (2012). “Take a break?!” Off-job recovery, job demands, and job resources as predictors of health, active learning, and creativity. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 21, 321–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2011.576009
*de Leede, J., Meijerink, J., & Torka, N. (2019). Work engagement and work pressure: Still in balance? A well being study among UT employees. Retrieved from https://www.utwente.nl/en/hr/health-safety/well-being-report.pdf
*Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Sonnentag, S., & Fullagar, C. J. (2012). Work-related flow and energy at work and at home: A study on the role of daily recovery. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33, 276–295. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.760
*Demsky, C. A. (2012). Interpersonal conflict and employee well-being: The moderating role of recovery experiences (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (UMI No. 1518888)
*Demsky, C. A., Ellis, A. M., & Fritz, C. (2014). Shrugging it off: Does psychological detachment from work mediate the relationship between workplace aggression and work-family conflict? Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19, 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035448
*Demsky, C. A., Fritz, C., Hammer, L. B., & Black, A. E. (2019). Workplace incivility and employee sleep: The role of rumination and recovery experiences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 24, 228–240. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000116
*Derks, D., & Bakker, A. B. (2012). Smartphone use, work–home interference, and burnout: A diary study on the role of recovery. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 63, 411–440. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00530.x
*Derks, D., ten Brummelhuis, L. L., Zecic, D., & Bakker, A. B. (2014). Switching on and off . . . : Does smartphone use obstruct the possibility to engage in recovery activities? European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 23, 80–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2012.711013
*Derks, D., van Mierlo, H., & Schmitz, E. B. (2014). A diary study on work-related smartphone use, psychological detachment and exhaustion: Examining the role of the perceived segmentation norm. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19, 74–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035076
*Deselms, J. L. (2016). 911,what’s my emergency? Emotional labor, work-related rumination, and strain outcomes in emergency medical dispatchers (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from https://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/etds/632/
*Dettmers, J., & Biemelt, J. (2018). Always available – The role of perceived advantages and legitimacy. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 33, 497–510. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-02-2018-0095
*Doğan, D. (2019). The role of recovery experiences on effects of emotional labor (Master’s thesis, Ankara Yildirim Beyazit University, Ankara, Turkey). Retrieved from http://acikerisim.ybu.edu.tr:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/1274/dilan_dogan_tez.pdf
*Donahue, E. G., Forest, J., Vallerand, R. J., Lemyre, P.-N., Crevier-Braud, L., & Bergeron, É. (2012). Passion for work and emotional exhaustion: The mediating role of rumination and recovery. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 4, 341–368. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2012.01078.x
*Dumani, S. (2015). Engaging overqualified employees: The role of job and nonwork crafting (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/5942
*Dunn, J. M. (2016). Chronic embitterment in the NHS (Doctoral thesis, Royal Holloway, University of London, London, England). Retrieved from https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/portal/files/26903332/2016JoanneDunnDClinPsy.pdf
*Durepos, D. M. (2016). Can we recovery at work? Exploring on-the-job recovery (Doctoral thesis, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Canada). Retrieved from http://library2.smu.ca/handle/01/26657
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social role theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 458–476). London, England: Sage.
Ebert, D. D., Berking, M., Thiart, H., Riper, H., Laferton, J. A. C., Cuijpers, P., Sieland, B., & Lehr, D. (2015). Restoring depleted resources: Efficacy and mechanisms of change of an internet-based unguided recovery training for better sleep and psychological detachment from work. Health Psychology, 34(Suppl), 1240–1251. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000277.
*Ebner, K., & Thiele, L., Spurk, D., Kauffeld, S. (2018). Validation of the German Career Decision-Making Profile—An updated 12-factor version. Journal of Career Assessment, 26, 111–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072716679996
*Eschleman, K. J., Madsen, J., Alarcon, G., & Barelka, A. (2014). Benefiting from creative activity: The positive relationships between creative activity, recovery experiences, and performance-related outcomes. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 87, 579–578. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12064
*Fallon-Hogan, V. (2013). An examination of working hours, work-life conflict and psychological well-being in Irish academics (Doctoral thesis, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland). Retrieved from https://aran.library.nuigalway.ie/handle/10379/4302
Fehr, R., Fulmer, A., Awtrey, E., & Miller, J. A. (2017). The grateful workplace: A multilevel model of gratitude in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 42, 361–381. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2014.0374.
*Feldt, T., Huhtala, M., Kinnunen, U., Hyvönen, K., Mäkikangas, A., & Sonnentag, S. (2013). Long-term patterns of effort-reward imbalance and over-commitment: Investigating occupational well-being and recovery experiences as outcomes. Work & Stress, 27, 64–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2013.765670
*Firoozabadi, A., Uitdewilligen, S., & Zijlstra, F. R. H. (2018). Should you switch off or stay engaged? The consequences of thinking about work on the trajectory of psychological well-being over time. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 23, 278–288. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000068
*Flaxman, P. E., Ménard, J., Bond, F. W., & Kinman, G. (2012). Academics’ experiences of a respite from work: Effects of self-critical perfectionism and perseverative cognition on post-respite well-being. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97, 854–865. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028055
*Flaxman, P. E., Stride, C. B., Söderberg, M., Lloyd, J., Guenole, N., & Bond, F. W. (2017). Relationships between two dimensions of employee perfectionism, postwork cognitive processing, and work day functioning. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2017.1391792
*Foucreault, A., & Menard, J. (2016). Social activities do no distract everyone from work: A diary study of work-related perseverative cognition. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 8, 38–50. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v8n4p38
*Foucreault, A., Ménard, J. & Stevens, C. (2016). A diary study on work-related perseverative cognition and employees’ need for recovery: The role of emotional support from family and neuroticism. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 8, 77–90. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v8n4p77
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218.
*Fritz, C., & Sonnentag, S. (2005). Recovery, health, and job performance: Effects of weekend experiences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10, 187–199. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.10.3.187
*Fritz, C., & Sonnentag, S. (2006). Recovery, well-being, and performance-related outcomes: The role of workload and vacation experiences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 936–945. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.4.936
*Fritz, C., Sonnentag, S., Spector, P. E., & McInroe, J. A. (2010). The weekend matters: Relationships between stress recovery and affective experiences. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 1137–1162. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.672
*Fritz, C., Yankelevich, M., Zarubin, A., & Barger, P. (2010). Happy, healthy, and productive: The role of detachment from work during nonwork time. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 977–983. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019462
*Fritz, C., Park, Y., & Shepherd, B. R. (2019). Workplace incivility ruins my sleep and yours: The costs of being in a work-linked relationship. Occupational Health Science, 3, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41542-018-0030-8
*Frone, M. R. (2015). Relations of negative and positive work experiences to employee alcohol use: Testing the intervening role of negative and positive work rumination. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 20, 148–160. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038375
*Gabriel, A. S., Calderwood, C., Bennett, A. A., Wong, E. M., Dahling, J. J., & Trougakos, J. P. (2019). Examining recovery experiences among working college students: A person-centered study. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 115, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.103329
*Galliker, S., Nicoletti, C., Feer, S., Etzer-Hofer, I., Brunner, B., Grosse Holtforth, M., Melloh, M., Dratva, J., & Elfering, A. (2020). Quality of leadership and presenteeism in health professions education and research: A test of a recovery-based process model with cognitive irritation and impaired sleep as mediators. Psychological, Health & Medicine, 25, 239–251. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2019.1634823
*Garrosa-Hernández, E., Carmona-Cobo, I., Ladstätter, F., Blanco, L. M., & Cooper-Thomas, H. D. (2013). The relationships between family-work interaction, job-related exhaustion, detachment, and meaning in life: A day-level study of emotional well-being. Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 29, 169–177. https://doi.org/10.5093/tr2013a23
*Geisler, M., Buratti, S., & Allwood, C. M. (2019). The complex interplay between emotional regulation and work rumination on exhaustion. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01978
Geurts, S. A. E., Taris, T. W., Kompier, M. A. J., Dikkers, J. S. E., Van Hooff, M. L. M, & Kinnunen, U. M. (2005). Work-home interaction from a work psychological perspective: development and validation of a new questionnaire, the SWING. Work & Stress, 19, 319–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370500410208
*Goodboy, A. K., Martin, M. M., & Brown, E. (2016). Bullying on the school bus: Deleterious effects on public school bus drivers. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 44, 434–452. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2016.1225161
Grossman, M., & Wood, W. (1993). Sex differences in intensity of emotional experience: A social role interpretation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1010–1022. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.5.1010.
Gruman, J. A., & Saks, A. M. (2019). What is work good for? A positive organizational psychology perspective. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 12, 448–450. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2019.75.
*Gu, Y., Wang, R., & You, X. (2020). Recovery experiences moderate the impact of work stressors on well-being: A two-wave study of preschool teachers. Early Child Education Journal, 48, 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-019-00994-w
*Guros, F. (2015). Thinking about work at home: Implications for safety at work (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (ProQuest No. 3742869)
*Hahn, V. C., Binnewies, C., Sonnentag, S., & Mojza, E. J. (2011). Learning how to recover from job stress: Effects of a recovery training program on recovery, recovery-related self-efficacy, and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16, 202–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022169
*Hakanen, J., Rodríguez-Sánchez, A. M., & Perhoniemi, R. (2012). Too good to be true? Similarities and differences between engagement and workaholism among Finnish judges. Retrieved from http://repositori.uji.es/xmlui/handle/10234/63410
Halbesleben, J. R. B. (2010). A meta-analysis of work engagement: relationship with burnout, demands, resources, and consequences. In A. B. Bakker & M. P. Leiter (Eds.), Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research (pp. 102–117). Psychology Press.
*Haun, V. C., & Oppenauer, V. (2019). The role of job demands and negative work reflection in employees’ trajectory of sleep quality over the workweek. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 24, 675–688. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000156
*Highhouse, S., Nye, C. D., & Matthews, R. A. (2017). Finding meaning in the struggle of work: Construct redundancy in work importance measurement. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 16, 137–149. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000178
*Höge, T. (2009). When work strain transcends psychological boundaries: An inquiry into the relationship between time pressure, irritation, work–family conflict and psychosomatic complaints. Stress and Health, 25, 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1226
*Höge, T., & Hornung, S. (2015). Perceived flexibility requirements: Exploring mediating mechanisms in positive and negative effects on worker well-being. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 36, 407–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X13511274
*Hornung, S., Rousseau D. M., Weigl, M., Müller, A., & Glaser, J. (2014). Redesigning work through idiosyncratic deals. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 23, 608–626. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2012.740171
Horowitz, M., Wilner, N., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41, 209–218. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-197905000-00004.
*Horsman, P. A. (2011). Is a change as good as a rest? Investigating part-time reserve service as a method of stress recovery (Master’s thesis, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Canada). Retrieved from http://library2.smu.ca/xmlui/handle/01/23829
*Houk, E. K. (2020). Unpacking the burnout phenomenon: Understanding daily influences on burnout (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses/3192
Hu, X., & Kaplan, S. (2015). Is “feeling good” good enough? Differentiating discrete positive emotions at work. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36, 39–58. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1941.
*Igic, I., Keller, A. C., Elfering, A., Tschan, F., Kälin, W., & Semmer, N. K. (2017). Ten-year trajectories of stressors and resources at work: Cumulative and chronic effects on health and well-being. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102, 1317–1343. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000225
Ilies, R., Keeney, J., & Scott, B. A. (2011). Work–family interpersonal capitalization: Sharing positive work events at home. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 114, 115–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.10.008.
*Jalonen, N., Kinnunen, M.-L., Pulkkinen, L., & Kokko, K. (2015). Job skill discretion and emotion control strategies as antecedents of recovery from work. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 24, 389–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2014.914923
*Jiang, L., & Johnson, M. J. (2018). Meaningful work and affective commitment: A moderated mediation model of positive work reflection and work centrality. Journal of Business and Psychology, 33, 545–558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-017-9509-6
Johnson, D. P., & Whisman, M. A. (2013). Gender differences in rumination: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Difference, 55, 367–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.019.
Kaplan, S. A., Warren, C. R., Barsky, A. P., & Thoresen, C. J. (2009). A note on the relationship between affect(ivity) and differing conceptualizations of job satisfaction: Some unexpected meta-analytic findings. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 18, 29–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320701873264.
Kiken, L. G., & Shook, N. J. (2014). Does mindfulness attenuate thoughts emphasizing negativity, but not positivity? Journal of Research in Personality, 53, 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.08.002.
*Kim, M., & Beehr, T. A. (2019). Leaders empower positive thinking via employee engagement, spilling over to the home. Poster session presented at the 34th annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology National Harbor, MD.
*Kinman, G., Clements, A. J., & Hart, J. (2017). Working conditions, work–life conflict, and well-being in U.K. prison officers: The role of affective rumination and detachment. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 44, 226–239. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854816664923
*Kinnunen, U., Mauno, S., & Siltaloppi, M. (2010). Job insecurity, recovery and well-being at work: Recovery experiences as moderators. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 31, 179–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X09358366
*Kinnunen, U., Rantanen, J., de Bloom, J., Mauno, S., Feldt, T., & Korpela, K. (2016). The role of work–nonwork boundary management in work stress recovery. International Journal of Stress Management, 23, 99–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039730
*Kinnunen, U., Feldt, T., Sianoja M., de Bloom, J., Korpela, K., & Geurts, S. (2017). Identifying long-term patterns of work-related rumination: Associations with job demands and well-being outcomes. European Journal of Work and Organizsational Psychology, 26, 514–526. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2017.1314265
Kinnunen, U., Feldt, T., & de Bloom, J. (2019). Testing cross-lagged relationships between work-related rumination and well-being at work in a three-wave longitudinal study across one and two years. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 92(3), 645–670. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12256.
*Krannitz, M. A. (2015). Fueling the fire: Applying self-expansion theory to work passion (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (ProQuest No. 28097067)
Krohne, H. W., Pieper, M., Knoll, N., & Breimer. (2002). The cognitive regulation of emotions: The role of success versus failure experience and coping dispositions. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 217–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000301.
*Kuykendall, L., Craig, L., Stiksma, M., & Guarino, K. (2020). Understanding employees’ unused vacation days: A social cognitive approach. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000182
*Lapierre, L. M., Hammer, L. B., Truxillo, D. M., & Murphy, L. A. (2012). Family interference with work and workplace cognitive failure: The mitigating role of recovery experiences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 81, 227–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2012.07.007
*Lassen, K., & Lea, I.-A. G. (2018). Availability exceptions and technology use after-hours and the role of boundary control for work-life outcomes (Master’s thesis, BI Norwegian Business School, Oslo, Norway). Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/11250/2579045
*LeBlanc, D. E. (2018). Work conflict: Meaning, measurement, and management (Doctoral thesis, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Canada). Retrieved from http://www.library2.smu.ca/handle/01/28214
*Liao, Z., Lee, H. W., Johnson, R. E., Song, Z., & Liu, Y. (2020). Seeing from a short-term perspective: When and why daily abusive supervisor behavior yields functional and dysfunctional consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000508
*Lin, B. C. (2009). Do recovery experiences during lunch breaks impact worker well-being? (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=bgsu1245903545
Lyubomirsky, S., Sousa, L., & Dickerhoof, R. (2006). The costs and benefits of writing, talking, and thinking about life’s triumphs and defeats. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 692–708. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.692.
*Mäder, I. A., & Niessen, C. (2017). Nonlinear associations between job insecurity and adaptive performance: The mediating role of negative affect and negative work reflection. Human Performance, 30, 231–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959285.2017.1364243
Markman, A. (2017). How to forget about work when you’re not working. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2017/08/how-to-forget-about-work-when-youre-not-working
McCullough, M. E., Bono, G., & Root, L. M. (2007). Rumination, emotion, and forgiveness: Three longitudinal studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 490–505. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.3.490.
McRae, K., Ochsner, K. N., Mauss, I. B., Gabrieli, J. J. D., & Gross, J. J. (2008). Gender differences in emotion regulation: An fMRI study of cognitive reappraisal. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 11, 143–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430207088035.
*Meier L. L., Cho, E., & Dumani, S. (2016). The effect of positive work reflection during leisure time on affective well-being: Results from three diary studies. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37, 255–278. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2039
*Michailidis, E., & Cropley, M. (2016). Exploring predictors and consequences of embitterment in the workplace. Ergonomics, 60, 1197–1206. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2016.1255783
*Michailidis, E., & Cropley, M. (2019). Testing the benefits of expressive writing for workplace embitterment: A randomized control trial. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 28, 315–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2019.1580694
Mohr, G., Müller, A., Rigotti, T. A., & Tschan, F. (2006). The assessment of psychological strain in work contexts. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 22, 198–206. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.22.3.198.
*Mojza, E. J., Lorenz, C., Sonnentag, S., & Binnewies, C. (2010). Daily recovery experiences: The role of volunteer work during leisure time. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15, 60–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017983
*Mojza, E. J., Sonnentag, S., & Bornemann, C. (2011). Volunteer work as a valuable leisure-time activity: A da-level study on volunteer work, non-work experiences, and well-being at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84, 123–152. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317910X485737
*Molino, M., Cortese, C. G., Bakker, A. B., & Ghislieri, C. (2015). Do recovery experiences moderate the relationship between workload and work-family conflict? Career Development International, 20, 686–702. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-01-2015-0011
Moos, R. H., & Swindle Jr., R. W. (1990). Stressful life circumstances: Concepts and measures. Stress Medicine, 6, 171–180. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2460060302.
*Moreno-Jiménez, B., Mayo, M., Sanz-Vergel, A. I., Geurts, S., Rodríguez-Muñoz, A., & Garrosa, E. (2009). Effects of work–family conflict on employees’ well-being: The moderating role of recovery strategies. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14, 427–440. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016739
*Moreno-Jiménez, B., Rodríguez-Muñoz, A., Pastor, J. C., Sanz-Vergel, A. I., & Garrosa, E. (2009). The moderating effects of psychological detachment and thoughts of revenge on workplace bullying. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 359–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.10.031
*Moreno-Jiménez, B., Rodríguez-Muñoz, A., Sanz-Vergel, A., & Garrosa, E. (2012). Elucidating the Role of Recovery Experiences in the Job Demands-Resources Model. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 15, 659–669. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_SJOP.2012.v15.n2.38877
*Mostert, K., & Els, C. (2015). The psychometric properties of the Recovery Experiences Questionnaire of employees in a higher education institution. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 25, 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2014.997006
*Myers, A. (2020). Further understanding of the spillover process: Work influences on family disengagement and the mediating effects of flexible work arrangements (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses/3197
*Newman, S. (2017). Perfectionism in the workplace: Examining the influence of perfectionistic charcteristics on employees’ work day and respite experiences (Doctoral thesis, City, University of London, London, England). Retrieved from http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/20406/
Newton, D. W., LePine, J. A., Kim, J. K., Wellman, N., & Bush, J. T. (2020). Taking engagement to task: The nature and functioning of task engagement across transitions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000428.
*Nohe, C., Michel, A., & Sonntag, K. (2014). Family–work conflict and job performance: A diary study of boundary conditions and mechanisms. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35, 339–357. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1878
*Nolan, M. (2019). Preparing for the workday: The effects of pre-work strategies on psychological engagement and well-being (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Akron, Akron, Ohio.
*Ohly, S., & Latour, A. (2014). Work-related smartphone use and well-being in the evening: The role of autonomous and controlled motivation. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 13, 174–183. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000114
*Ott, A. R., Haun, V. C., & Binnewies, C. (2019). Negative work reflection, personal resources, and work engagement: The moderating role of perceived organizational support. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 28, 110–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2018.1550076
*Otto, K., & Mamatoglu, N. (2015). Why does interactional justice promote organizational loyalty, job performance, and prevent mental impairment? The role of social support and social stressors. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 149, 193–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2013.866535
*Panthee, B., Panthee, S., Shimazu, A., & Kawakami, N. (2020). Validation of the Nepalese version of the Recovery Experience Questionnaire. Heliyon, 6, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03645
*Park, Y., Fritz, C., & Jex, S. M. (2011). Relationships between work-home segmentation and psychological detachment from work: The role of communication technology use at home. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16, 457–467. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023594
*Park, Y., Fritz, C., & Jex, S. M. (2018). Daily cyber incivility and distress: The moderating roles of resources at work and home. Journal of Management, 44, 2535–2557. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206315576796
*Pereira, D., Semmer, N. K., & Elfering, A. (2014). Illegitimate tasks and sleep quality: An ambulatory study. Stress and Health, 30, 209–221. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2599
*Pereira, D., Müller, P., & Elfering, A. (2015). Workflow interruptions, social stressors from supervisor(s) and attention failure in surgery personnel. Industrial Health, 53, 427–433. https://doi.org/10.2486/indhealth.2013-0219
*Perko, K., Kinnunen, U., & Feldt, T. (2017). Long-term profiles of work-related rumination associated with leadership, job demands, and exhaustion: A three-wave study. Work & Stress, 31, 395–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2017.1330835
*Pingel, R., Fay, D., & Urbach, T. (2019). A resources perspective on when and how proactive work behaviour leads to employee withdrawal. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 92, 410–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12254
Posthuma, R. A., & Campion, M. A. (2009). Age stereotypes in the workplace: Common stereotypes, moderators, and future research directions. Journal of Management, 35, 158–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206308318617.
*Prem, R., Kubicek, B., Uhlig, L., Baumgartner, V. C., & Korunka, C. (2020). Development and validation of a scale to measure cognitive demands of flexible work. PsyArXiv. 10.31234/osf.io/mxh75
*Qing, T., Xu, H., & Zhang, Y. (2019). The relationship between job insecurity and sleep quality: A moderated mediation model. In L. Zhang (Ed.), 2019 International Conference on Strategic Management (ICSM 2019) (pp. 185–205). https://doi.org/10.25236/icsm.2019.018
*Querstret, D., & Cropley, M. (2012). Exploring the relationship between work-related rumination, sleep quality, and work-related fatigue. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17, 341–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028552
Querstret, D., Cropley, M., & Fife-Schaw, C. (2017). Internet-based instructor-led mindfulness for work-related rumination, fatigue, and sleep: Assessing facets of mindfulness as mechanisms of change. A randomized waitlist control trial. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22, 153–169. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000028.
Raju, N. S., & Brand, P. A. (2003). Determining the significance of correlations corrected for unreliability and range restriction. Applied Psychological Measurement, 27, 52–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621602239476.
Ready, R. E., Weinberger, M. I., & Jones, K. M. (2007). How happy have you felt lately? Two diary studies of emotion recall in older and younger adults. Cognition and Emotion, 21, 728–757. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930600948269.
*Richardson, K. M., & Thompson, C. A. (2012). High tech tethers and work-family conflict: A conservation of resources approach. Engineering Management Research, 1, 29–43. https://doi.org/10.5539/emr.v1n1p29
Richter, P., Rudolf, M., & Schmidt, C. F. (1999). Fragebogen zur Analyse belastungsrelevanter Anforderungsbewältigung: FABA [The faulty attitudes and behavior analysis questionnaire: FABA]. Frankfurt, Germany: Swets & Zeitlinger.
*Rigotti, T., De Cuyper, N., De Witte, H., Korek, S., & Mohr, G. (2009). Employment prospects of temporary and permanent workers: Associations with well-being and work related attitudes. Journal Psychologie des Alltagshandelns, 2, 22–35. Retrieved from http://www.allgemeine-psychologie.info/wp/journal/
*Rivkin, W., Diestel, S., & Schmidt, K.-H. (2015). Psychological detachment: A moderator in the relationship of self-control demands and job strain. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 24, 376–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2014.924926
*Ruan, Y. (2020). Understanding work-life balance: Organizational predictors, effect on job satisfaction, and moderation by age and gender (Master’s thesis, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada). Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/1993/34912
Salanova, M., Schaufeli, W. B., Xanthopoulou, D., & Bakker, A. B. (2010). The gain spiral of resources and work engagement: Sustaining a positive worklife. In A. B. Bakker & M. P. Leiter (Eds.), Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research (pp. 118–131). Hove, England: Psychology Press.
*Sanz-Vergel, A. I., Demerouti, E., & Bakker, A. B. (2011). Daily detachment from work and home. The moderating effect of role salience. Human Relations, 64, 775–799. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726710393368
Schaufeli, W. B. (2017). General engagement: Conceptualization and measurement with the Utrecht General Engagement Scale (UGES). Journal of Well-Being Assessment, 1, 9–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41543-017-0001-x.
*Schlachter, S. (2017). Voluntary work-related ICT use during non-work time: Its antecedents and consequences for employee recovery and well-being (Doctoral thesis, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom). Retrieved from http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/id/eprint/845728
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (2015). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Schmidt, F. L., Pearlman, K., Hunter, J. E., & Hirsch, H. R. (1985). Forty questions about validity generalization and meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 38, 697–798. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1985.tb00565.x.
*Schulz, A. D., Schöllgen, I., & Fay, D. (2019). The role of resources in the stressor–detachment model. International Journal of Stress Management, 26, 306–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/str0000100
*Shimazu, A., Sonnentag, S., Kubota, K., & Kawakami, N. (2012). Validation of the Japanese version of the Recovery Experience Questionnaire. Journal of Occupational Health, 54, 196–205. https://doi.org/10.1539/joh.11-0220-OA
*Shimazu, A., de Jonge, J., Kubota, K., & Kawakami, N. (2014). Psychological detachment from work during off-job time: Predictive role of work and non-work factors in Japanese employees. Industrial Health, 52, 141–146. https://doi.org/10.2486/indhealth.2013-0210
Shockley, K. M., Ispas, D., Rossi, M. E., & Levine, E. L. (2012). A meta-analytic investigation of the relationship between state affect, discrete emotions, and job performance. Human Performance, 25, 377–411. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959285.2012.721832.
*Sonnentag, S., & Bayer, U.-V. (2005). Switching off mentally: Predictors and consequences of psychological detachment from work during off-job time. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10, 393–414. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.10.4.393
*Sonnentag, S., & Binnewies, C. (2013). Daily affect spillover from work to home: Detachment from work and sleep as moderators. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83, 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.03.008
*Sonnentag, S., & Fritz, C. (2007). The Recovery Experience Questionnaire: Development and validation of a measure for assessing recuperation and unwinding from work. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12, 204–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.12.3.204
Sonnentag, S., & Fritz, C. (2015). Recovery from job stress: The stressor–detachment model as an integrative framework. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36, S72–S103. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1924.
*Sonnentag, S., & Grant, A. M. (2012). Doing good at work feels good at home, but not right away: When and why perceived prosocial impact predicts positive affect. Personnel Psychology, 65, 495–530. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2012.01251.x
*Sonnentag, S., & Kruel, U. (2006). Psychological detachment from work during off-job time: The role of job stressors, job involvement, and recovery-related self-efficacy. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 15, 197–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320500513939
*Sonnentag, S., Mojza, E. J., Binnewies, C., & Scholl, A. (2008). Being engaged at work and detached at home: A week-level study on work engagement, psychological detachment, and affect. Work & Stress, 22, 257–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370802379440
*Sonnentag, S., Binnewies, C., & Mojza, E. J. (2010). Staying well and engaged when demands are high: The role of psychological detachment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 965–976. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020032
*Sonnentag, S., Kuttler, I., & Fritz, C. (2010). Job stressors, emotional exhaustion, and need for recovery: A multi-source study on the benefits of psychological detachment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76, 355–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.06.005
*Sonnentag, S., Unger, D., & Nägel, I. J. (2013). Workplace conflict and employee well-being: The moderating role of detachment from work during off-job time. International Journal of Conflict Management, 24, 166–183. https://doi.org/10.1108/10444061311316780
*Sonnentag, S., Arbeus, H., Mahn, C., & Fritz, C. (2014). Exhaustion and lack of psychological detachment from work during off-job time: Moderator effects of time pressure and leisure experiences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19, 206–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035760
*Sousa, T., & Neves, P. (2020). Two tales of rumination and burnout: Examining the effects of boredom and overload. Applied Psychology: An International Review. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12257
Spector, P. E., Zapf, D., Chen, P. Y., & Frese, M. (2000). Why negative affectivity should not be controlled in job stress research: Don’t throw out the baby with the bath water. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 79–85.
*Steiner, S. (2019). Exploring the association between affective work-related rumination and cardiovascular risk factors (Doctoral thesis, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom). Retrieved from http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/id/eprint/853213
*Stevens, S. N. M. (2010). Understanding how employees unwind after work: Expanding the construct of “Recovery” (Doctoral dissertation, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Canada). Retrieved from http://library2.smu.ca/xmlui/handle/01/23055
Swider, B. W., & Zimmerman, R. D. (2010). Born to burnout: A meta-analytic path model of personality, job burnout, and work outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76, 487–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.01.003.
*Syrek, C. J., Weigelt, O., Peifer, C., & Antoni, C. H. (2017). Zeigarnik’s sleepless nights: How unfinished tasks at the end of the week impair employee sleep on the weekend through rumination. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22, 225–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000031
Tamres, L. K., Janicki, D., & Helgeson, V. S. (2002). Sex differences in coping behavior: A meta-analytic review and an examination of relative coping. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 2–30. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0601_1.
*Tanner, G., Bamberg, E., Kersten, M., Kozak, A., & Nienhaus, A. (2017). The relationship between working time and ill health: Differences between full-time and part-time workers. Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie A&O, 61, 181–196.
Tarrant, M. A. (1996). Attending to past outdoor recreation experiences: Symptom reporting and changes in affect. Journal of Leisure Research, 28, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.1996.11949757.
Taylor, S. E. (1991). Asymmetrical effects of positive and negative events: The mobilization-minimization hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 67–85. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.67.
Teasdale, J. D., & Green, H. A. C. (2004). Ruminative self-focus and autobiographical memory. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1933–1943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2003.08.022.
*ten Brummelhuis, L. L., & Bakker, A. B. (2012). Staying engaged during the week: The effect of off-job activities on next day work engagement. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17, 445–455. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029213
*Thomas, J. (2019). Daily recovery from work-related effort: Investigating emotional labour strategies and work-related thoughts (Master’s dissertation, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand). Retrieved from https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/100034
Thomsen, D. K., Mehlsen, M. Y., Olesen, F., Hokland, M., Viidik, A., Avlund, K., & Zachariae, R. (2004). Is there an association between rumination and self-reported physical health? A one-year follow-up in a young and an elderly sample. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 27, 215–231. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBM.0000028496.41492.34.
Thoresen, C. J., Kaplan, S. A., Barsky, A. P., Warren, C. R., & de Chermont, K. (2003). The affective underpinnings of job perceptions and attitudes: A meta-analytic review and integration. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 914–945. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.6.914.
*Vahle-Hinz, T. (2019). Little things matter: A daily diary study of the within-person relationship between workplace incivility and work-related rumination. Industrial Health, 57, 676–690. https://doi.org/10.2486/indhealth.2018-0186
*Vahle-Hinz, T., Bamberg, E., Dettmers, J., Friedrich, N., & Keller, M. (2014). Effects of work stress on work-related rumination, restful sleep, and nocturnal heart rate variability experienced on workdays and weekends. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19, 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036009
*Vahle-Hinz, T., Mauno, S., de Bloom, J., & Kinnunen, U. (2017). Rumination for innovation? Analysing the longitudinal effects of work-related rumination on creativity at work and off-job recovery. Work & Stress, 31, 315–337. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2017.1303761
*Vahle-Hinz, T., Baethge, A., & Van Dick, R. (2019). Beyond one work day? A daily diary study on causal and reverse effects between experienced workplace incivility and behaving rude towards others. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 28, 272–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2019.1576633
*van Eerde, W. (2003). Procrastination of work and time management training. The Journal of Psychology, 137, 421–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980309600625
*van Hooff, M. L. M. (2015). The daily commute from work to home: Examining employees’ experiences in relation to their recovery status. Stress and Health, 31, 124–137. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2534
*Van Laethem, M., Beckers, D. G. J., Kompier, M. A. J., Kecklund, G., van den Bossche, S. N. J., & Geurts, S. A. E. (2015). Bidirectional relations between work-related stress, sleep quality and perseverative cognition. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 79, 391–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.08.011
*Van Laethem, M., Beckers, D. G. J., de Bloom, J., Sianoja, M., & Kinnunen, U. (2019). Challenge and hindrance demands in relation to self-reported job performance and the role of restoration, sleep quality, and affective rumination. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 92, 225–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12239
Van Veldhoven, M., & Meijman, T. (1994). The measurement of psychosocial job demands. Amsterdam: NIA.
*Vandevala, T., Pavey, L., Chelidoni, O., Chang, N.-F., Creagh-Brown, B., & Cox, A. (2017). Psychological rumination and recovery from work in intensive care professionals: Associations with stress, burnout, depression and health. Journal of Intensive Care, 5, 2–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40560-017-0209-0
*Vîrgă, D., & Paveloni, A. (2015). Psychological capital and well-being: The moderating role of psychological detachment from work. Psihologia Resurselor Umane, 13, 53–62. Retrieved from https://www.hrp-journal.com/index.php/pru/index
*Volman, F. E., Bakker, A. B., & Xanthopoulou, D. (2013). Recovery at home and performance at work: A diary study on self–family facilitation. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 22, 218–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2011.648375
*Waite, E. (2012). Running to work: Marathon training, replenishment, and worker well-being (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://uh-ir.tdl.org/handle/10657/ETD-UH-2012-05-451
*Wang, M., Liu, S., Liao, H., Gong, Y., Kammer-Mueller, J., & Shi, J. (2013). Can’t get it out of my mind: Employee rumination after customer mistreatment and negative mood in the next morning. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 989–1004. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033656
*Ward, S., & Steptoe-Warren, G. (2014). A conservation of resources approach to Blackberry use, work-family conflict and well-being: Job control and psychological detachment from work as potential mediators. Engineering Management Research, 3, 8–23. https://doi.org/10.5539/emr.v3n1p8
Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163.
Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversion emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465–490. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.96.3.465.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.54.6.1063.
*Weigelt, O., Gierer, P., Syrek, C. J. (2019). My mind is working overtime—Towards an integrative perspective of psychological detachment, work-related rumination, and work reflection. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162987
*Weigelt, O., Syrek, C. J., Schmitt, A., & Urbach, T. (2019). Finding peace of mind when there still is so much left undone—A diary study on how job stress, competence need satisfaction, and proactive work behavior contribute to work-related rumination during the weekend. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 24, 373–386. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000117
*Weinberger, E., Wach, D., Stephan, U., & Wegge, J. (2018). Having a creative day: Understanding entrepreneurs’ daily idea generation through a recovery lens. Journal of Business Venturing, 33, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2017.09.001
Weiss, H. M., & Cropanzano, R. (1996). Affective events theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior: An annual series of analytical essays and critical reviews (Vol. 18, pp. 1–74). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Wendsche, J., & Lohmann-Haislah, A. (2017). A meta-analysis on antecedents and outcomes of detachment from work. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02072.
*White, E. (2011). Helping to promote psychological well-being at work: The role of work engagement, work stress and psychological detachment using the job demands-resources model. The Plymouth Student Scientist, 4, 144–180. Retrieved from https://pearl.plymouth.ac.uk/handle/10026.1/12776
*Wiese, B. S., Heidemeier, H., Burk, C. L., & Freund, A. M. (2017). When work takes over: Emotional labor strategies and daily ruminations about work while at home. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 16, 150–154. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000174
Wood, J. V., Heimpel, S. A., & Michela, J. L. (2003). Savoring versus dampening: Self-esteem differences in regulating positive affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 566–580. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.566.
*Xanthopoulou, D., & Perrigino, M. B. (2018). Abusive supervision: Why does it matter for daily recovery process? In A. Sanz-Vergel & D. Xanthopoulou (Chairs), Deconstructing recovery: Why, how, and when it occurs (Part I). Symposium conducted at the biennial meeting of the European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology, Lisbon, Portugal.
*Xu, S., Martinez, L. R., Van Hoof, H., Estrella Duran, M., Maldonado Perez, G., & Gavilanes, J. (2018). Emotional exhaustion among hotel employees: The interactive effects of affective dispositions and positive work reflection. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 59, 285–296. https://doi.org/10.1177/1938965517748774
*Xu, X., Jiang, L., Hong, P. Y., & Roche, M. (in press). Will mindful employees benefit from positive work reflection triggered by transformational leadership? A two-study examination. International Journal of Stress Management.
*Zhang, L., Qiu, Y., Zhang, N., & Li, S. (2020). How difficult doctor–patient relationships impair physicians’ work engagement: The roles of prosocial motivation and problem-solving pondering. Psychological Reports, 123, 885–902. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294119826887
*Zheng, Y., Wu, C.-H., & Graham, L. (2020). Work-to-non-work spillover: The impact of public service motivation and meaningfulness on outcomes in work and personal life domains. Public Management Review, 22, 578–601. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2019.1601242
*Zoupanou, Z. (2012). The recovery process: The role of work beliefs and interruptions at work (Doctoral thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (ProQuest No. 10074585)
Zucker, R. (2019). How to stop thinking about work at 3am. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2019/12/how-to-stop-thinking-about-work-at-3 am
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the researchers who responded to our requests for study information and Old Dominion University Libraries staff Beverly Barco, David Corona, Marelene Patac, and Robert Tench for fulfilling our interlibrary loan requests. We also thank Dr. James Smither and our two anonymous reviewers for their patience, encouragement, and invaluable feedback throughout the review process.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(PDF 800 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jimenez, W.P., Hu, X. & Xu, X.V. Thinking About Thinking About Work: A Meta-Analysis of Off-Job Positive and Negative Work-Related Thoughts. J Bus Psychol 37, 237–262 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-021-09742-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-021-09742-7