Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Earthquake induced liquefaction hazard, probability and risk assessment in the city of Kolkata, India: its historical perspective and deterministic scenario

  • ORIGINAL ARTICLE
  • Published:
Journal of Seismology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Liquefaction-induced ground failure is one amongst the leading causes of infrastructure damage due to the impact of large earthquakes in unconsolidated, non-cohesive, water saturated alluvial terrains. The city of Kolkata is located on the potentially liquefiable alluvial fan deposits of Ganga-Bramhaputra-Meghna Delta system with subsurface litho-stratigraphic sequence comprising of varying percentages of clay, cohesionless silt, sand, and gravel interbedded with decomposed wood and peat. Additionally, the region has moderately shallow groundwater condition especially in the post-monsoon seasons. In view of burgeoning population, there had been unplanned expansion of settlements in the hazardous geological, geomorphological, and hydrological conditions exposing the city to severe liquefaction hazard. The 1897 Shillong and 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquakes both of M w 8.1 reportedly induced Modified Mercalli Intensity of IV–V and VI–VII respectively in the city reportedly triggering widespread to sporadic liquefaction condition with surface manifestation of sand boils, lateral spreading, ground subsidence, etc., thus posing a strong case for liquefaction potential analysis in the terrain. With the motivation of assessing seismic hazard, vulnerability, and risk of the city of Kolkata through a consorted federal funding stipulated for all the metros and upstart urban centers in India located in BIS seismic zones III, IV, and V with population more than one million, an attempt has been made here to understand the liquefaction susceptibility condition of Kolkata under the impact of earthquake loading employing modern multivariate techniques and also to predict deterministic liquefaction scenario of the city in the event of a probabilistic seismic hazard condition with 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years and a return period of 475 years. We conducted in-depth geophysical and geotechnical investigations in the city encompassing 435 km2 area. The stochastically synthesized bedrock ground motion for both the 1897 and 1934 earthquakes on non-linear analysis of local site conditions through DEEPSOIL Geotechnical analysis package present surface level peak ground acceleration of the order of 0.05–0.14 g for the 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake while for the 1897 Shillong earthquake it is found to be in the range of 0.03–0.11 g. The factor of safety (FOS) against liquefaction, the probability of liquefaction (P L), the liquefaction potential index (LPI), and the liquefaction risk index are estimated under the influence of these two earthquakes wherein the city is classified into severe (LPI > 15), high (5 < LPI ≤ 15), moderate (0 < LPI ≤ 5), and non-liquefiable (LPI = 0) susceptibility zones. While the 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake induced moderate to severe liquefaction hazard condition in the city in mostly the deltaic plain and interdistributary marsh geomorphologic units with 13.5% sites exhibiting moderate hazard with a median LPI of 1.8, 8.5% sites depicting high with a median LPI of 9.1 and 4% sites with a median LPI of 18.9 exhibiting severe hazard condition, 1897 Shillong earthquake induced mostly non-liquefaction condition with very few sites depicting moderate and high liquefaction hazard. A conservative liquefaction hazard scenario of the city on the other hand estimated through deterministic approach for 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years predicts a high hazard zone in the 3.5–19 m depth region with FOS < 1 and P L > 65% comprising of coarse-grained sediments of sand, silty sand, and clayey silty sand in mostly the deltaic plain geomorphologic unit with 39.1% sites depicting severe liquefaction hazard with a median LPI of 28.3. A non-linear regression analysis on both the historical and deterministic liquefaction scenarios in P L versus LPI domain with ± 1 standard deviation confidence bound generated a cubic polynomial relationship between the two liquefaction hazard proxies. This study considered a bench mark for other cities in the country and elsewhere forms an integral part of the mega-seismic microzonation endeavors undertaken in all the earthquake-prone counties in the world.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16
Fig. 17
Fig. 18
Fig. 19
Fig. 20
Fig. 21
Fig. 22

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alam M, Alam MM, Curray JR, Chowdhury MLR, Gani MR (2003) An overview of the sedimentary geology of the Bengal Basin in relation to the regional tectonic framework and basin-fill history. Sediment Geol 155:179–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Ani H, Oh E, Chai G (2013) Characteristics of embedded peat in coastal environments. Int J Geomate 5(1):609–618

    Google Scholar 

  • Ambraseys NN (1988) Engineering seismology: part II. Earthq Eng Struc 17(1):51–105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ambraseys NN, Bilham R (2003) Reevaluated intensities for the Great Assam earthquake of 12th June 1897, Shillong, India. Bull Seismol Soc Am 93(2):655–673

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ambraseys N, Sarma S (1969) Liquefaction of soils induced by earthquakes. Bull Seismol Soc Am 59(2):651–664

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrus RD, Stokoe KH (1997) Liquefaction resistance based on shear wave velocity (No. Technical Report NCEER-97)

  • Andrus RD, Youd TL, Carter RR (1986) Geotechnical evaluation of a liquefaction induced lateral spread, Thousand Springs Valley, Idaho. Proceedings 22nd Annual Symposium on Engineering Geology and Soils Engineering, Boise, Idaho

  • Arango I (1996) Magnitude scaling factors for soil liquefaction evaluations. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 122(11):929–936

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arulanandan K (1977) Method and apparatus for measuring in-situ density and fabric soils, patent application. Regents of the University of California, Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  • Arulmoli K, Arulanandan K, Seed HB (1985) New method for evaluating liquefaction potential. J Geotech Eng Div 111:GT1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baise LG, Higgins RB, Brankman CM (2006) Liquefaction hazard mapping—statistical and spatial characterization of susceptible units. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 132(6):705–715

  • Baldi G, Bellotti R, Ghionna V, Jamiolkowski M, Pasqualini E (1985) Penetration resistance and liquefaction of sands. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, San Francisco, 1985

  • Ball F (1877) Geology of the Rajmahal hills. Geol Surv Ind Mem 13:1–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Benghalia Y, Bouafia A, Canou J, Dupla JC (2015) Liquefaction susceptibility study of sandy soils: effect of low plastic fines. Arab J Geosci 8(2):605–618

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bierschwale JG, Stokoe KH (1984) Analytical evaluation of liquefaction potential of sands subjected to the 1981 Westmoreland earthquake. Geotechnical Engineering Report GR-84-15, Civil Engineering Department, University of Texas, Austin, Texas

  • BIS (2002) IS 1893–2002 (part 1): Indian standard criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures, part 1—general provisions and buildings. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi

    Google Scholar 

  • Blake TF (1996) Formula (4), In: T. L. Youd and I. M. Idriss, Eds., Summary report of Proceedings of the NCEER Workshop on Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance of Soils, Technical Report NCEER, 97–0022

  • Boore DM (1983) Stochastic simulation of high-frequency ground motions based on seismological models of the radiated spectra. Bull Seismol Soc Am 73(6A):1865–1894

    Google Scholar 

  • Bray JD, Sancio RB (2006) Assessment of the liquefaction susceptibility of fine-grained soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 132(9):1165–1177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bray JD, Sancio RB, Riemer MF, Durgunoglu T (2004) Liquefaction susceptibility of fine-grained soils. In: Proceedings of the 11th international conference on soil dynamics and earthquake engineering and third international conference on earthquake geotechnical engineering, Berkeley, 655–62

  • Bray JD, Markham CS, Cubrinovski M (2017) Liquefaction assessments at shallow foundation building sites in the Central Business District of Christchurch, New Zealand. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 92:153–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campanella RG, Robertson PK (1984) A seismic cone penetrometer to measure engineering properties of soil. Proceedings of the Fifty-fourth Annual Meeting of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Atlanta

  • Casagrande A (1936) Characteristics of Cohesionless soils affecting the stability of slopes and earth fills. Journal of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, 1936, reprinted in Contributions to Soil Mechanics, 1925 to 1940, Boston Society of Civil Engineers

  • Castro G (1969) Liquefaction of sands, Thesis presented to Harvard University in fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

  • Castro G, Poulos SJ, France JW, Enos JL (1982) Liquefaction induced by cyclic loading. Report to National Science Foundation. Geotechnical Engineers, Inc., Winchester

    Google Scholar 

  • Cetin KO, Seed RB, Der Kiureghian A, Tokimatsu K, Harder LF Jr, Kayen RE, Moss RE (2004) Standard penetration test-based probabilistic and deterministic assessment of seismic soil liquefaction potential. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 130(12):1314–1340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chameau JL, Clough GW (1983) Probabilistic pore pressure analysis for seismic loading. J Geotech Eng, ASCE 109:GT4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen CJ, Juang CH (2000) Calibration of SPT- and CPT-based liquefaction evaluation methods. In: Innovations and applications in geotechnical site characterization, 49–64

  • Chung JW, Rogers JD (2011) Simplified method for spatial evaluation of liquefaction potential in the St. Louis area. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 137(5):505–515

  • Coleman JM (1981) Deltas: processes of deposition and models of exploration, 2nd edn. Burgess, Minneapolis

    Google Scholar 

  • Cramer CH, Rix GJ, Tucker K (2008) Probabilistic liquefaction hazard maps for Memphis, Tennessee. Seismol Res Lett 79(3):416–423

  • Cramer CH, Bauer RA, Chung JW, Rogers JD, Pierce L, Voigt V, Mitchell B, Gaunt D, Williams RA, Hoffman D, Hempen GL (2017) St. Louis area earthquake hazards mapping project: seismic and liquefaction hazard maps. Seismol Res Lett 88(1):206–223

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cubrinovski M, Bray JD, Taylor M, Giorgini S, Bradley B, Wotherspoon L, Zupan J (2011) Soil liquefaction effects in the central business district during the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake. Seismol Res Lett 82(6):893–904

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cubrinovski M, Haskell J, Winkley A, Robinson K, Wotherspoon L (2012) Performance of bridges in liquefied deposits during the 2010–2011 Christchurch, New Zealand, earthquakes. J Perform Constr Fac 28(1):24–39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Das D, Chattopadhyay BC (2009) Characterization of soil over Kolkata municipal area. IGC, Guntur

    Google Scholar 

  • Dasgupta S, Pande P, Ganguly D, Iqbal Z, Sanyal K, Venaktraman NV, Dasgupta S, Sural B, Harendranath L, Mazumdar K, Sanyal S, Roy A, Das LK, Misra PS, Gupta H (2000) Seismotectonic Atlas of India and its environs. Geological. Survey of India, Calcutta, India, Spl. Publicaiton, 59, 87

  • Day R (2012) Geotechnical earthquake engineering. McGraw Hill Professional

  • Dixit J, Dewaikar DM, Jangid RS (2012) Assessment of liquefaction potential index for Mumbai City. Nat Hazards Earth Sys Sci 12(9):2759–2768

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dobry R, Yokel FY, Ladd RS (1981) Liquefaction susceptibility from S-wave velocity. National Convention, St. Louis

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglas BJ, Olsen RS, Martin GR (1981) Evaluation of the cone penetrometer test for SPT-liquefaction assessment. In situ testing to evaluate liquefaction susceptibility, preprint. ASCE National Convention, St. Louis, pp 81–544

    Google Scholar 

  • Dupré WR, Tinsley JC (1989) The Loma Prieta, California, earthquake of October 17, 1989: liquefaction

  • Fardis MN, Veneziano D (1982) Probabilistic analysis of deposit liquefaction. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 108(GT3):395–417

  • Golesorkhi R (1989) Factors influencing the computational determination of earthquake-induced shear stresses in sandy soils. University of California, Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  • GSI (1939) The Bihar-Nepal Earthquake of 1934. Geol Surv India 73:391

    Google Scholar 

  • Haase JS, Choi YS, Nowack RL, Cramer CH, Boyd OS, Bauer RA (2011) Liquefaction hazard for the region of Evansville, Indiana, US Geol Surv Open-File Rept 2011–1203:38

  • Haldar A, Tang WH (1979) Probabilistic evaluation of liquefaction potential. J Geotech Eng-ASCE 105(GT2)

  • Hashash YMA, Groholski DR, Phillips CA, Park D, Musgrove M (2011) DEEPSOIL 5.0, user manual and tutorial. University of Illinois, Urbana

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayati H, Andrus RD (2008) Liquefaction potential map of Charleston, South Carolina based on the 1886 earthquake. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 134(6):815–828

  • Heidari T, Andrus RD (2011) Liquefaction potential assessment of Pleistocene beach sands near Charleston, South Carolina. J Geotec Geoenviron Eng 138(10):1196–1208

  • Holzer TL (2008) Probabilistic liquefaction hazard mapping. In: Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics IV, Sacramento, California, United States, pp 1–32

  • Holzer TL, Noce TE, Bennett MJ, Tinsley JC III, Rosenberg LI (2005) Liquefaction at Oceano, California, during the 2003 San Simeon earthquake. Bull Seismol Soc Am 95(6):2396–2411

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holzer TL, Bennett MJ, Noce TE, Padovani AC, Tinsley JC III (2006) Liquefaction hazard mapping with LPI in the greater Oakland, California, area. Earthquake Spectra 22(3):693–708

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Idriss IM (1999) An update to the Seed-Idriss simplified procedure for evaluating liquefaction potential. Proceedings TRB Workshop on New Approaches to Liquefaction, Pubbln. FHWA-RD-99-165, Federal Highway Administration

  • Idriss IM, Boulanger RW (2004) Semi-empirical procedures for evaluating liquefaction potential during earthquakes. Proceedings 11th International Conference on Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering and 3rd International Conference on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, Stallion Press 1, 32–56

  • Idriss IM, Boulanger RW (2006) Semi-empirical procedures for evaluating liquefaction potential during earthquakes. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 26(2):115–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Idriss IM, Boulanger RW (2010) SPT-based liquefaction triggering procedures, Rep. UCD/CGM-10 2

  • Idriss IM, Seed HB (1968) Seismic response of horizontal soil layers. J Soil Mech Found Div ASCE 94(SM4):1003–1031

    Google Scholar 

  • IS 2131 (1981) (R2002) Method for standard penetration test for soils. Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi. Available at https://archive.org/details/gov.in.is.2131.1981

  • Ishihara K (1984) Post-earthquake failure of a tailings dam due to liquefaction of the pond deposit. Proceedings of the International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, St. Louis

  • Ishihara K (1985) Stability of natural deposits during earthquakes. Proceedings 11th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Balkema1

  • Ishihara K (1993) Liquefaction and flow failure during earthquakes. Geotechnique 43(3):351–451

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ishii Y, Tsuchida H, Furube T (1963) Study on earth pressures and pore-water pressures of saturated sands during vibration, Report of Port and Harbour Research Institute

  • Iwasaki T (1986) Soil liquefaction studies in Japan: state-of-the-art. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 5(1):2–68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iwasaki T, Tatsuoka F, Tokida KI, Yasuda S (1978) A practical method for assessing soil liquefaction potential based on case studies at various sites in Japan. In: Proceedings 2nd International Conference on Microzonation 885-896

  • Iwasaki T, Tokida K, Tatsuoka F, Watanabe S, Yasuda S, Sato H (1982) Microzonation for soil liquefaction potential using simplified methods. In: Proceedings of 3rd international conference on microzonation, Seattle 3:1319–1330

  • Jha SK, Suzuki K (2009) Liquefaction potential index considering parameter uncertainties. Eng Geol 107(1):55–60

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juang CH, Li DK (2007) Assessment of liquefaction hazards in Charleston quadrangle, South Carolina. Eng Geol 92(1):59–72

  • Juang CH, Ching J, Luo Z, Ku CS (2012) New models for probability of liquefaction using standard penetration tests based on an updated database of case histories. Eng Geol 133:85–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kang GC, Chung JW, Rogers JD (2014) Re-calibrating the thresholds for the classification of liquefaction potential index based on the 2004 Niigata-ken Chuetsu earthquake. Eng Geol 169:30–40

  • Kayen R, Moss RES, Thompson EM, Seed RB, Cetin KO, Der Kiureghian A, Tanaka Y, Tokimatsu K (2013) Shear-wave velocity–based probabilistic and deterministic assessment of seismic soil liquefaction potential. J Geotech Geoenviron 139(3):407–419

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kishida H (1966) Damage to reinforced concrete buildings in Niigata City with special reference to foundation engineering. Soil and Foundation, JSSMFE 6

  • Koizumi Y (1966) Changes in density of sand subsoil caused by Niigata Earthquake, Soil and Foundation, JSSMFE 6

  • Kolbuszewski J (1950) Notes on the deposition of sands. Research 3:478–483

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolbuszewski J (1953) Notes on factors governing the porosity of wind deposited sands. Geol Mag 90:48–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kotoda K, Wakamatsu K, Midorikawa S (1988) Seismic microzoning on soil liquefaction potential based on geomorphological land classification. Soil Found 28(2):127–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs WD, Yokel FY, Salomone LA, Holtz RD (1984) Liquefaction potential and the international SPT, Proceedings of the Eighth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, volume 3. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer SL (1996) Geotechnical earthquake engineering. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuwano J, Ozaki K, Nakamura S (1992) Simplified method of liquefaction hazard evaluation for subsurface layers. Proceedings, 10th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Madrid, Balkema, Rotterdam 3

  • Lee D, Ku C, Yuan H (2003) A study of the liquefaction risk potential at Yuanlin, Taiwan. Eng Geol 71(1–2):97–117

    Google Scholar 

  • Lenz AJ, Baise LG (2007) Spatial variability of liquefaction potential in regional mapping using CPT and SPT data. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 27(7):690–702

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liao SSC, Whitman RV (1986) Overburden correction factors for SPT in sand. J Geotech Eng, ASCE 112(3):373–377

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liao SS, Veneziano D, Whitman RV (1988) Regression models for evaluating liquefaction probability. J Geotech Eng 114(4):389–411

  • Lombardi D, Bhattacharya S (2014) Liquefaction of soil in the Emilia-Romagna region after the 2012 Northern Italy earthquake sequence. Nat Hazards 73(3):1749–1770

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maiti SK, Nath SK, Adhikari MD, Srivastava N, Sengupta P, Gupta AK (2016) Probabilistic seismic hazard model of West Bengal, India. J Earthq Eng. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2016.1210054

  • Maurer BW, Green RA, Cubrinovski M, Bradley BA (2014) Evaluation of the liquefaction potential index for assessing liquefaction hazard in Christchurch, New Zealand. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 140(7):04014032

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mogami T, Kubo K (1953) The behavior of soil during vibration. Proceedings of Third International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

  • Mollamahmutoglu M, Kayabali K, Beyaz T, Kolay E (2003) Liquefaction-related building damage in Adapazari during the Turkey earthquake of August 17, 1999. Eng Geol 67:297–307

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan JP, McIntire WG (1959) Quaternary geology of Bengal Basin, East Pakistan and India. Geol Soc Am Bull 70:319–342

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Motazedian D, Atkinson GM (2005) Stochastic finite-fault modeling based on a dynamic corner frequency. Bull Seismol Soc Am 95(3):995–1010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mukherjee A, Fryar AE, Thomas WA (2009) Geologic, geomorphic and hydrologic framework and evolution of the Bengal Basin, India and Bangladesh. J Asian Earth Sci 34(3):227–244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nandy DR (2007) Need for seismic microzonation of Kolkata megacity. In: Proceedings of workshop on microzonation, Indian Institute of science, Bangalore, 2627

  • Nath SK (2011) Seismic microzonation manual and handbook. Geoscience Division, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India, New Delhi

  • Nath SK (2016) Seismic hazard vulnerability and risk microzonation atlas of Kolkata. Geoscience Division, Ministry of Earth Sciences,©Govt. of India, New Delhi Available at http://www.moes.gov.in/content/seismic-hazard-vulnerability-and-risk-microzonation-atlas-kolkata

  • Nath SK, Thingbaijam KKS, Vyas JC, Sengupta P, Dev SMSP (2010) Macroseismic-driven site effects in the southern territory of West Bengal, India. Seismol Res Let 81(3):480–487

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nath SK, Adhikari MD, Maiti SK, Devaraj N, Srivastava N, Mohapatra LD (2014) Earthquake scenario in West Bengal with emphasis on seismic hazard microzonation of the city of Kolkata. India Nat Hazard Earth Sys 14:2549–2575. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-2549-2014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Obermeier SF (1996) Use of liquefaction-induced features for paleoseismic analysis—an overview of how seismic liquefaction features can be distinguished from other features and how their regional distribution and properties of source sediment can be used to infer the location and strength of Holocene paleo-earthquakes. Eng Geol 44(1):1–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ohara S (1963) On vibrational pressures of saturated sands, Proceedings of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 99

  • Ohsaki Y (1966) Niigata earthquakes, 1964 building damage and soil condition. Soils Found 6(2):14–37

  • Oka F, Yui H, Kimoto S, Kinugawa T (2016) New evaluation method for liquefaction of ground using dynamic liquefaction analysis method and its application. Int J Geomech 16(5):C4016002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oldham RD (1899) Report of the great earthquake of 12th June, 1897, Geol. Surv. India

  • Oldham T, Oldham RD (1882) The Cachar earthquake of 10th January 1869. Geol Surv India 19:1–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Oya M, Kotoda K, Wakamatsu K, Kubo S (1982) Geomorphologic land classification map of the Shonai plain illustrating features of flooding and soil liquefaction, Sakata Construction Office, Ministry of Construction (JE)

  • Papathanassiou G (2008) LPI-based approach for calibrating the severity of liquefaction-induced failures and for assessing the probability of liquefaction surface evidence, Eng. Geology 96(1/2):94–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Papathanassiou G, Pavlides S, Ganas A (2005) The 2003 Lefkada earthquake: field observation and preliminary microzonation map based on liquefaction potential index for the town of Lefkada. Eng Geol 82(1):12–31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Papathanassiou G, Mantovani A, Tarabusi G, Rapti D, Caputo R (2015) Assessment of liquefaction potential for two liquefaction prone areas considering the May 20, 2012 Emilia (Italy) earthquake. Eng Geol 189:1–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Papathanassiou G, Ganas A, Valkaniotis S (2016) Recurrent liquefaction-induced failures triggered by 2014 Cephalonia, Greece earthquakes: spatial distribution and quantitative analysis of liquefaction potential. Eng Geol 200:18–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pokhrel RM, Kiyota T, Kajihara K (2015) Contribution of geostatistical technique to investigate the spatial variation of liquefaction potential in Urayasu City, Japan. In Proc. of 6th International Conference on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, PaperID (Vol. 525)

  • Poulos SJ (1981) The steady state of deformation. J Geotech Eng, ASCE 107:GT5

    Google Scholar 

  • Poulos SJ, Castro G, France JW (1985) Liquefaction evaluation procedure. J Geotech Eng, ASCE 111:GT6

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahman MZ, Siddiqua S (2017) Evaluation of liquefaction-resistance of soils using standard penetration test, cone penetration test, and shear-wave velocity data for Dhaka, Chittagong, and Sylhet cities in Bangladesh. Environl Earth Sci 76(5):207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman MZ, Siddiqua S, Kamal AM (2015) Liquefaction hazard mapping by liquefaction potential index for Dhaka City, Bangladesh. Eng Geol 188:137–147

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahmanian S, Rezaie F (2017) Evaluation of liquefaction potential of soil using the shear wave velocity in Tehran, Iran. Geosci J 21(1):81–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rix GJ, Romero-Hudock S (2006) Liquefaction potential mapping in Memphis and Shelby County. Tennessee Eng Geol 27

  • Robertson PK, Campanella RG (1985) Liquefaction potential of sands using the CPT. J Geotech Eng, ASCE 111:GT3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson PK, Wride CE (1998) Evaluating cyclic liquefaction potential using the cone penetration test. Can Geotech J 35(3):442–459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson PK, Campanella RG, Wightman A (1983) SPT-CPT correlations. J Geotech Eng, ASCE 109:GT11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roy PK, Banerjee G, Mazumdar A, Kar A, Majumder A, Roy MB (2012) A study to ascertain the optimum yield from groundwater source in the eastern part of Kolkata municipal corporation area in West Bengal, India. Eur J Sust Develop 1(2):97–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Seed HB, Idriss IM (1967) Analysis of soil liquefaction: Niigata Earthquake, Proceedings of ASCE, SM3, 93

  • Seed HB, Idriss IM (1971) Simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential. J Soil Mech Found Div, ASCE 97(9):1249–1273

    Google Scholar 

  • Seed HB, Idriss IM (1982) Ground motions and soil liquefaction during earthquake (vol. 5). Earthq Eng Res Inst, California

  • Seed  HB, Peacock WH (1971) Test procedures for measuring soil liquefaction characteristics. J Soil Mech Found Div ASCE 97(8):1099–1119

  • Seed HB, Idriss IM, Arango I (1983) Evaluation of liquefaction potential using field performance data, J Geotech Eng-ASCE, 109 No. GT3

  • Seed HB, Tokimatsu K, Harder LF, Chung RM (1985) Influence of SPT procedures in soil liquefaction resistance evaluations. J Geotech Geoenviron Engg 111(12):1425–1445

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shahnazari H, Jafarian Y, Tutunchian MA, Rezvani R (2016) Probabilistic assessment of liquefaction occurrence in calcareous fill materials of Kawaihae Harbor, Hawaii. Int J Geomech 16(6):05016001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sladen JA, D’hollander RD, Krahn J (1985) The liquefaction of sands, a collapse surface approach. Can Geotech J 22(4):564–578

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sonmez H (2003) Modification of the liquefaction potential index and liquefaction severity mapping for a liquefaction-prone area (Inegol, Turkey). Eng Geol 44(7):862–871

    Google Scholar 

  • Tinsley JC, Dupré WR (1992) Liquefaction hazard mapping, deposional faces, and lateral spreading ground failure in the Monterey Bay area, Central California, during the 10/17/89 Loma Prieta earthquake. In: Technical Report NCEER (Vol. 1, No. 92-0019, pp. 71-85). US National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (NCEER)

  • Tokimatsu K, Yoshimi Y (1983) Empirical correlation of soil liquefaction based on SPT N-value and fines content, Soils and Foundations. Jpn Soc Soil Mech Found Eng 23:4

    Google Scholar 

  • Toprak S, Holzer TL (2003) Liquefaction potential index: field assessment. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 129(4):315–322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsuchida H (1971) Estimation of liquefaction potential of sandy soils, Proceedings of the Third Joint Meeting, US-Japan Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects, UJNR

  • Tsuchida H, Hayashi S (1971) Estimation of liquefaction potential of sandy soils, Proceedings of the Third Joint Meeting, US-Japan Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects, UJNR, Tokyo, 91–109

  • Updike RG, Egan JA, Moriwaki Y, Idriss IM, Moses TL (1988) A model for earthquake-induced translatory landslides in Quaternary sediments. Geol Soc Am Bull 100(5):783–792

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wadia DN (1949) Geology of India (2nd edition). MacMillan and Co., Ltd., London, pp 460

  • Wakamatsu K (1980) Geomorphological consideration on site conditions of soil liquefaction caused by earthquake. Asian Profile 8(3):279–297

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang W (1979) Some findings in soil liquefaction. Water Conservancy and Hydroelectric Power Scientific Research Institute, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y, Fu C, Huang K (2016) Probabilistic assessment of liquefiable soil thickness considering spatial variability and model and parameter uncertainties. Géotechnique:1–14

  • West WD (1949) Geological map of India. Geol Surv India Rec 81(1):222

    Google Scholar 

  • Yalcin A, Gokceoglu C, Sönmez H (2008) Liquefaction severity map for Aksaray city center (Central Anatolia, Turkey). Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 8(4):641–649

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yasuda S (1985) Applicability of PL-value to mapping liquefaction potential. Proceedings 40th Annual Meeting. Jpn Soc Civil Eng 3:87–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Yegian M, Whitman RV (1978) Risk analysis for ground failure by liquefaction. J Geotech Eng Div 104:GT7

    Google Scholar 

  • Yilmaz I, Bagci A (2006) Soil liquefaction susceptibility and hazard mapping in the residential area of Ku¨tahya (Turkey). Environ Geol 49:708–719

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Youd TL (1991) Mapping of earthquake-induced liquefaction for seismic zonation. Proceeding of The International Conference on Seismic Zonation

  • Youd TL, Noble SK (1997) Magnitude scaling factors. Proceedings, NCEER Workshop on Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance of Soils, National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research., State University of New York, Buffalo, 149–165

  • Youd TL, Perkins DM (1978) Mapping liquefaction-induced ground failure potential. J Geotech Eng Div 104:433–446

    Google Scholar 

  • Youd TL, Idriss IM, Andrus RD, Arango I, Castro G, Christian JT, Dobry R, Finn WDL, Jr Harder LF, Hynes ME, Ishihara K, Koester JP, Liao SSC, Marcuson-III WF, Martin GR, Mitchell JK, Moriwaki Y, Power MS, Robertson PK, Seed RB, Stokoe-II KH (2001) Liquefaction resistance of soils: summary report from the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF Workshops on Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance of Soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 127:817–833

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work has been supported by the Geoscience Division of the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, vide sanction order no. MoES/P.O.(Seismo)/1(60)/2009. Thanks are due to the Ministry of Civil Defense, Govt. of West Bengal, West Bengal Disaster Management Authority, and West Bengal State Council of Science & Technology for rendering necessary help and logistic support during the Geophysical and Geotechnical Exploration in Kolkata. We express sincere gratitude to Dr. Mariano Garcia-Fernandez, Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Seismology for apt handling of the manuscript and also to the anonymous reviewers for putting up great efforts in critically reviewing the manuscript and suggesting corrective measures considered while revising the manuscript to its present form with significantly enhanced scientific exposition. M/s Paras Equipments and Engineering Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Drilltech Consultants Pvt. Ltd., and CE Testing Company Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata, participated in both the invasive and noninvasive investigations in the city for over 3 years field survey in the city in very harsh conditions. Several research students from IIT Kharagpur, IIEST, WBSCST and JU also participated in the field data acquisition for over three years.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geology and Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, West Bengal, India

    Sankar Kumar Nath, Nishtha Srivastava, Chitralekha Ghatak & Manik Das Adhikari

  2. Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Howrah, 711103, West Bengal, India

    Ambarish Ghosh

  3. Centre for Ground Water Studies, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

    S. P. Sinha Ray

Authors
  1. Sankar Kumar Nath
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nishtha Srivastava
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Chitralekha Ghatak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Manik Das Adhikari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Ambarish Ghosh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. S. P. Sinha Ray
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sankar Kumar Nath.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Nath, S.K., Srivastava, N., Ghatak, C. et al. Earthquake induced liquefaction hazard, probability and risk assessment in the city of Kolkata, India: its historical perspective and deterministic scenario. J Seismol 22, 35–68 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10950-017-9691-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10950-017-9691-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation