Abstract
The eruption and collapse of the Anak Krakatau volcano generated tsunamis in the Sunda Strait on December 22, 2018, leading to damage and casualties. In this paper, we use the two-layer model and nonlinear shallow equation model to study the triggering mechanism of the tsunami event. We first simulate the tsunami generated by volcano eruption and landslide, respectively. The tsunami source is analyzed by comparing with gauge measurements. It indicates that the volume of partial collapse for the landslide is 0.2–0.3 km3. The comparison between the numerical results of landslide and tide gauge measurements presents well-fitted results, especially for the leading tsunami waves and arrival time. Computed maximum tsunami amplitude distribution points out that the most hazardous area is located at the south of the Sunda Strait (Pandeglang), which suffered the most casualties.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agustan KF, Pamitro YE et al (2012) Understanding the 2007–2008 eruption of Anak Krakatau Volcano by combining remote sensing technique and seismic data. Int J Appl Earth Obs 14(1):73–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2011.08.011
Andersen ØL (2018) Krakatau volcano: witnessing the eruption, tsunami and the aftermath 22–23th December 2018. https://www.oysteinlundandersen.com/krakatau-volcano-witnessing-the-eruption-tsunami-22december2018/. Accessed 28 Dec 2019
Arcos MEM, LeVeque RJ (2015) Validating velocities in the GeoClaw tsunami model using observations near Hawaii from the 2011 Tohoku tsunami. Pure Appl Geophys 172(3–4):849–867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-014-0980-y
Becker JJ, Sandwell DT, Smith WHF et al (2009) Global bathymetry and elevation data at 30 Arc Seconds resolution: SRTM30_PLUS. Mar Geod 32(4):355–371. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490410903297766
Bernama (2019) Number of injured in Indonesia tsunami surges to over 14,000. The Star Online Asean Plus. Retrieved 31 December 2018. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/regional/2018/12/31/number-of-injured-in-indonesia-tsunami-surges-to-over-14000/
Bonaccorso A, Calvari S, Garfi G, Lodato L, Patane D (2003) Dynamics of the December 2002 flank failure and tsunami at Stromboli volcano inferred by volcanological and geophysical observations. Geophys Res Lett 30(18):1941. https://doi.org/10.1029/2003GL017702
Giachetti T, Paris R, Kelfoun K, Ontowirjo B (2012) Tsunami hazard related to a flank collapse of Anak Krakatau volcano, Sunda Strait, Indonesia. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 361(1):79–90. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP361.7
Glimsdal S, Pedersen GK, Harbitz CB, Løvholt F (2013) Dispersion of tsunamis: does it really matter? Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 13:1507–1526. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-13-1507-2013
Grilli ST, Tappin DR, Carey S, Watt SF, Ward SN, Grilli AR, Engwell SL, Zhang C, Kirby JT, Muin M (2019) Modelling of the tsunami from the December 22, 2018 lateral collapse of Anak Krakatau volcano in the Sunda Straits, Indonesia. Sci Rep 9:11946
Heidarzadeh M, Ishibe T, Sandanbata O, Muhari A, Wijanarto AB (2020) Numerical modeling of the subaerial landslide source of the 22 December 2018 Anak Krakatoa volcanic tsunami, Indonesia. Ocean Eng 195:106733
Heinrich P, Guibourg S, Mangeney A, Roche R (1999) Numerical modeling of a landslide-generated tsunami following a potential explosion of the Montserrat Volcano. Phys Chem Earth (A) 24(2):163–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1464-1895(99)00013-7
Imamura F, Imteaz MA (1995) Long waves in two-layers: Governing equations and numerical model. J Sci Tsunami Hazards 13:3–24
Ioki K, Tanioka Y, Yanagisawa H, Kawakami G (2019) Numerical Simulation of the Landslide and Tsunami Due to the 1741 Oshima–Oshima Eruption in Hokkaido, Japan. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 124(2):1991–2002. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JB016166
Joint Research Centre (JRC) Emergency Reporting (2018) Indonesia—Volcanic Eruption & Tsunami. https://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/indonesia-volcanic-eruption-tsunami-jrc-emergency-reporting-activation-029-24-dec. Accessed 24 Dec 2018
Kawamata K, Takaoka K, Ban K, Imamura F, Yamaki S, Kobayashi E (2005) Model of tsunami generation by collapse of volcanic eruption: the 1741 Oshima–Oshima tsunami. In: Satake K (ed) Tsunamis: case studies and recent developments. Springer, New York, pp 79–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3331-1_5
Kelfoun K, Giachetti T, Labazuy P (2010) Landslide-generated tsunamis at Réunion Island. J Geophys Res 115:F04012. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001381
Kelfoun K, Gueugneau V, Komorowski JC, Aisyah N, Cholik N, Merciecca C (2017) Simulation of block-and-ash flows and ash-cloud surges of the 2010 eruption of Merapi volcano with a two-layer model. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 122(6):4277–4292
LeVeque RJ, George DL, Berger MJ (2011) Tsunami modelling with adaptively refined finite volume methods. Acta Numer 20:211–289. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0962492911000043
Maeno F, Imamura F (2007) Numerical investigations of tsunamis generated by pyroclastic flows from the Kikai caldera, Japan. Geophys Res Lett 34:L23303. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL031222
Maeno F, Imamura F (2011) Tsunami generation by a rapid entrance of pyroclastic flow into the sea during the 1883 Krakatau eruption, Indonesia. J Geophys Res 116:B09205. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JB008253
Maeno F, Imamura F, Taniguchi H (2006) Numerical simulation of tsunamis generated by caldera collapse during the 7.3 Kakikai eruption, Kyushu, Japan. Earth Planets Space 58(8):1013–1024. https://doi.org/10.1186/BF03352606
Matsumoto T, Hashi K, Imamura F, Shuto N (1998) Development of tsunami generation and propagation model by debris flow (in Japanese). In: Proceedings of 45th Coastal Engineering Conference, vol 45, pp 346–350. Japan Soc. of Civ. Eng., Tokyo
Muhari A, Heidarzadeh M, Susmoro H, Nugroho HD, Kriswati E, Wijanarto AB, Imamura F, Arikawa T (2019) The December 2018 Anak Krakatau Volcano Tsunami as Inferred from Post-Tsunami Field Surveys and Spectral Analysis. Pure Appl Geophys 176(12):5219–5233
Paris M (2015) Source mechanism of volcanic tsunamis. Philos Trans R Soc A 373:20140380. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2014.0380
Permadi A (2018) Longsoran yang Sebabkan Tsunami Selat Sunda Seluas 64 Hektar. Kompas (in Indonesian). Retrieved 11 January 2019. https://regional.kompas.com/read/2018/12/26/12210621/longsoran-yang-sebabkan-tsunami-selat-sunda-seluas-64-hektar
Ren ZY, Wang BL, Fan TT, Liu H (2013) Numerical analysis of impacts of 2011 Japan Tohoku tsunami on China Coast. J Hydrodyn Ser B 25(4):580–590. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-6058(11)60399-6
Ren Z, Ji X, Wang P, Hou J, Shan D, Zhao L (2018) Source inversion and numerical simulation of 2017 M w 8.1 Mexico earthquake tsunami. Nat Hazards 94(3):1163–1185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3465-y
Ren Z, Zhao X, Liu H (2019) Numerical study of the landslide tsunami in the South China Sea using Herschel-Bulkley rheological theory. Phys Fluids 31(5):056601. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5087245
Satake K (1995) Linear and nonlinear computations of the 1992 Nicaragua Earthquake Tsunami. Pure Appl Geophys 144:455–470. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00874378
Satake K (2007) Volcanic origin of the 1741 Oshima-Oshima tsunami in the Japan Sea. Earth Planets Space 59:381–390. https://doi.org/10.1186/BF03352698
Smith MS, Shepherd JB (1996) Tsunami waves generated by volcanic landslides: an assessment of the hazard associated with Kick ‘em Jenny. In: McGuire WJ, Jones AP, Neuberg J (eds) Volcano Instability on the Earth and Other Planets, Special Publication 10. Geological Society, London, pp 115–123. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1996.110.01.09
Suwarsono NF, Prasasti I, Nugroho JT, Sitorus J, Triyono D (2019) Detecting the lava flow deposits from 2018 Anak Krakatau eruption using data fusion Landsat-8 Optic and Sentinel-1 SAR. Int J Remote Sens Earth Sci 15(2):157–166. https://doi.org/10.30536/j.ijreses.2018.v15.a3078
Walter TR, Haghighi MH, Schneider FM et al (2019) Complex hazard cascade culminating in the Anak Krakatau sector collapse. Nat Commun 10(1):1–11
Wang Y, Satake K, Cienfuegos R, Quiroz M, Navarrete P (2019) Far-field tsunami data assimilation for the 2015 Illapel earthquake. Geophys J Int 219(1):514–521
Watada S, Mulia IE et al (2019) Seismic waveforms from the 2019 December 22 Eddifice collapse event of Anak Krakatau, confidential manuscript submitted to Geophys Res Lett
Yamada M, Wang Y, Maeno F, Fujino S, Satake K (2018) Numerical simulation of a Tsunami generated by the 7.3 Ka caldera-forming eruption of the Kikai Volcano, Japan. In: AOGS 15th annual meeting, Honolulu
Yamazaki Y, Cheung KF (2011) Shelf resonance and impact of near-field tsunami generated by the 2010 Chile earthquake. Geophys Res Lett 38:L12605. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL047508
Acknowledegements
This study is supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2018YFC1407000). This work was partially supported by JSPS funding KAKENHI 19J20293 (YW). We thank the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, for the bathymetry data of the ocean floor at 30 arcsec resolution (SRTM30_Plus) and 30 meters resolution (STRM DEM) (Becker et al. 2009; available at https://opentopography.org). We thank the Geospatial Information Agency of Indonesia (Badan Informasi Geospasial; BIG) for providing the tsunami record of tide gauges. We also thank Prof. Fukashi Maeno at Earthquake Research Institute for his suggestions regarding the simulation of volcanic tsunamis. The discussion with Prof. Hua Liu and associate professor Chao An at Shanghai Jiao Tong University, and Prof. Haijiang Liu at Zhejiang University are appreciated. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ren, Z., Wang, Y., Wang, P. et al. Numerical study of the triggering mechanism of the 2018 Anak Krakatau tsunami: eruption or collapsed landslide?. Nat Hazards 102, 1–13 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-03907-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-03907-y