Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Drivers of non-profit activity: a cross-country analysis

  • Published:
Small Business Economics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper contributes to the existing debate on the determinants of non-profit activity. The main theories have been centered in (1) the study of the individual behavior of people (donors, non-profit entrepreneurs), (2) one single factor or (3) one single country. To quantify this approach, data for 38 countries have been used, extracted from World Values Survey, United Nations Development Program and Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. A structural modeling approach based in partial least squares (PLS) has been applied. The results provide evidence of the strength of environmental factors such as trust, economic development and social care public expenditures in non-profit activity. The model doesn’t confirm the existence of a positive relationship between entrepreneurship and non-profit activity. Nevertheless, the authors consider that the supply side theories and the idea of spatial production of entrepreneurship are quite consistent and find some signs evidencing a positive relationship between these variables.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. While in Anglo-Saxon countries it is usual to employ a narrow definition of Third Sector, the Mediterranean and Latin-American countries employ a broader concept that includes even cooperatives.

  2. We would like to note the difference between for-profit and for-benefit. The first one is related to organizations driven by earned income and maximization of owners’ benefit behavior, while the second refers to organizations devoted to maximizing social benefit; even if the non-distribution constraint has been relaxed, they dedicate profits to its social mission prosecution.

  3. Koning et al. (2007, pp. 255–256) state that the market failures that are most prevalent in explaining the rationale of non-profit organizations are: asymmetric information, externalities, market power and distributional or merit good concerns.

  4. This government failure is also a market failure: for-profits don’t supply public goods due to the free-rider behavior.

  5. Nevertheless, Koning et al. (2007) didn’t find empirical evidence to confirm that quality in services (in health and children’s care) offered by non-profits is greater than that offered by for profits. They also remark that profits and subsidies are not employed by non-profits to ameliorate quality but to raise wages, create inefficiencies, or crowd out private donations or donated labor.

  6. But they find no empirical support for either this hypothesis or the alternative hypothesis.

  7. We must remember that post-materialist values increment trust (in oneself and in others). See more about post-materialism in Inglehart’s literature.

  8. Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Malaysia, Mexico, The Netherlands, Peru, Philippines, Russian Federation, Singapore, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom and United States.

  9. In this sense, Jeavons (1992, p. 403) says that non-profits exist to “give expression to the social, philosophical, moral or religious values of their founders and supporters.”

  10. For a study of different types of measurement of social capital and their difficulties, see Carrasco and Castaño (2009).

References

  • Acs, Z. J. (2002). Innovation and the growth of cities. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Acs, Z. J., Audretsch, D. B., Braunerhjelm, P., & Carlson, B. (2004). The missing link the knowledge filter and entrepreneurship in endogenous growth. Working Paper 4783. London: Center for Economic Policy Research.

  • Acs, Z. J., Audretsch, D. B., Braunerhjelm, P., & Carlson, B. (2005). Growth and entrepreneurship: An empirical assessment. Working Paper 3205, Discussion papers on entrepreneurship, growth and public policy. Jena, Germany: Max Plank Institute of Economics.

  • Acs, Z. J., & Plummer, L. A. (2005). Penetrating the “knowledge filter’” in regional economies. The Annals of Regional Science, 39(3), 439–456.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akehurst, G., Comeche, J. M., & Galindo, M. A. (2009). An approach to the influence of variables of attitude in the entrepreneurial SME. Small Business Economics, 32, 277–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amin, A., Cameron, A., & Hudson, R. (2002). Placing the social economy. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 411–423.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(June), 469–477.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anheier, H., & Ben-Ner, A. (1997). Shifting boundaries: Long-term changes in the size of the for-profit, nonprofit, cooperative and government sectors. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 68, 335–353.

    Google Scholar 

  • Apinunmahakul, A., & Delvin, R. A. (2008). Social networks and private philanthropy. Journal of Public Economics, 92, 309–328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arrow, J. K. (1973). Higher education as a filter. Journal of Public Economics, 3, 193–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Audretsch, D. B. (2009). The entrepreneurial society. Journal of Technology Transfer, 34(3), 245–254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Audretsch, D. B., Bonte, W., & Keilbach, M. (2008). Entrepreneurship capital and its impact on knowledge diffusion and economic performance. Journal of Business Venturing, 23(6), 687–698.

    Google Scholar 

  • Audretsch, D. B., & Keilbach, M. (2004a). Does entrepreneurship capital matter? Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 28(5), 419–429.

    Google Scholar 

  • Audretsch, D. B., & Keilbach, M. (2004b). Entrepreneurship and regional growth: An evolutionary interpretation. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 14(5), 605–616.

    Google Scholar 

  • Audretsch, D. B., & Keilbach, M. (2004c). Entrepreneurship capital and economic performance. Regional Studies, 38(8), 949–959.

    Google Scholar 

  • Audretsch, D. B., & Keilbach, M. (2005). Entrepreneurship capital and regional growth. Regional Science, 39(3), 457–469.

    Google Scholar 

  • Audretsch, D. B., & Keilbach, M. (2007a). The localization of entrepreneurship capital: Evidence form Germany. Papers in Regional Science, 86(3), 351–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Audretsch, D. B., & Keilbach, M. (2007b). The theory of knowledge spillover entrepreneurship. Journal of Management Studies, 44(7), 1242–1254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Audretsch, D. B., & Keilbach, M. (2008). Resolving the knowledge paradox: Knowledge-spillover entrepreneurship and economic growth. Research Policy, 37(10), 1697–1705.

    Google Scholar 

  • Audretsch, D. B., & Thurik, A. R. (2000). Capitalism and democracy in the 21st century: From the managed to the entrepreneurial economy. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 10(1), 17–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin, J. E., Leonard, H., Reficco, E., & Wei-Skillem, J. (2004). Corporate social entrepreneurship: A new vision of CSR. Harvard Business School Working Paper nº 05-021. Boston: Harvard Business School.

  • Austin, J., Stevenson, H., & Wei-Skillern, J. (2006). Social and commercial entrepreneurship: Same, different, or both? Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, January, 1–22.

  • Bahmani-Oskooee, M., Galindo, M. A., & Mendez, M. T. (2008). Social capital and entrepreneurship in a regional context: The case of Spanish regions. In M. A. Galindo, J. Guzmán, & D. Ribeiro (Eds.), Entrepreneurship and regional economics (pp. 101–111). Berlin: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldet, C. (2003). Entrepreneurship in nonprofit organisations: Its role in theory and in the real world nonprofit. In H. Anheier & A. Ben-Ner (Eds.), The study of the Nonprofit enterprise. Theories and approachs. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenun Publishers

  • Barclay, D., Higgins, C., & Thompson, R. (1995). The partial least squares (PLS) approach to causal modeling. Personal computer adoption and use as an illustration. Technology Studies, Special Issue on Research Methodology, 2(2), 285–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barro, R. J. (1991). Economic growth in a cross section of countries. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106(2), 407–443.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, G. (1974). A theory of social interactions. Journal of Political Economy, 82, 1063–1093.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benz, M. (2009). Entrepreneurship as a non-profit-seeking activity. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 5, 23–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhagwati, J. (1973). Education, class structure and income inequality. World Development, 1, (May).

  • Bilodeau, M., & Slivinski, A. (1996). Volunteering nonprofit entrepreneurial services. Journal of Economic Behaviour & Organizations, 31, 117–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bilodeau, M., & Slivinski, A. (1998). Rational nonprofit entrepreneurship. Journal of Economics and Management, 7(4), 551–571.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birch, K., & Whittam, G. (2008). The third sector and the regional development of social capital. Regional Studies, 42(3), 437–450.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bollen, K. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolodeu, M., & Slivinski, A. (1996). Volunteering nonprofit entrepreneurial services. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organizations, 31, 117–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borins, S. (2000). Loose cannons and rule breakers, or enterprising leaders? Some evidence about innovative public managers. Public Administration Review, 60, 498–507.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bosma, N., Acs, Z. J., Autio, E., Coduras, A., & Levie, J. (2008). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 2008 Executive Report. London: London Business School.

  • Bosma, N., van Praag, C. M., & Thurik, A. R. (2004). The value of human and social capital investments for the business performance of startups. Small Business Economics, 23(3), 227–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brinckerhoff, C. P. (2000). Mission-based management: Leading your not-for-profit in the 21st Century. New York: J. Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canadian Centre of Social Entrepreneurship. (2001). Social Entrepreneurship. Discussion paper, February, www.business.ualberta.ca/ccse/Publications/

  • Carrasco, I., & Castaño, M. S. (2009). Social capital, entrepreneurial capital and economic growth. In R. Elling (Ed.), Social development. New York: Nova Publisher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caruana, A., & Ewing, M. T. (2002). Effects of some environmental challenges and centralization on the entrepreneurial orientation and performance of public sector entities. Service Industries Journal, 22, 43–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castaño, M. S., & Carrasco, I. (2005). Social capital and economic growth: The competitive advantage. In M. Bahmani-Oskoee & M. A. Galindo (Eds.), Next economic growth: New factors and new perspectives (pp. 121–136). New York: Nova Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaves, R., & Monzon, J. L. (2007). The social economy in the European Union. Report Nº. CESE/COMM/05/2005 EESC. DICESE 97/2007 GR III ahc.

  • Chhibber, A. (2000). Social capital, the state and development outcomes. In P. Dasgupta & I. Serageldin (Eds.), Social capital. A multifaceted perspective (pp. 296–309). Washington: The World Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chin, W. W., Marcolin, B. L., & Newsted, P. R. (2003). A partial least squares latent variable modeling approach for measuring interaction effects: Results from a Monte Carlo simulation study and an electronic mail emotion/adoption study. Information Systems Research, 14(2), 189–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cho, A. H. (2006). Politics, values and social entrepreneurship: A critical appraisal. In J. Mair, J. Robinson, & K. Hockerts (Eds.), Social entrepreneurship. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, B., Dodds, C., & Mitchell, W. (2001). The false premises of social entrepreneurship. Centre of Full Employment and Equity. The University of Newcastle, Working Paper, 1–24.

  • Coorbin, J. (1999). A study of factors influencing the growth of nonprofits in social services. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 28, 296–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornwall, J. R. (1998). The entrepreneur as a building block for community. Journal of Development Entrepreneurship, 3(2), 141–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Groot, H. L. F., Nijkamp, P., & Acs, Z. J. (2001). Knowledge spillovers, innovation and regional development. Papers in Regional Science, 80(3), 249–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dees, J. G. (1998). The meaning of social entrepreneurship? Kauffman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership. www.gpnnet.com/perspective/social_entrepreneurship.htm

  • Dees, G. (2004, March). Rhetoric, reality and research: Building strong intellectual foundations for the emerging field of social entrepreneurship. Paper presented at the 2004 Skoll World Forum on social Entrepreneurship, Oxford.

  • Dees, J. G., & Anderson, B. B. (2003). For-profit social ventures. International Journal of Entrepreneurship Education (special issue on social entrepreneurship), 2, 1–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dees, G., Emerson, J., & Economy, P. (2001). Enterprising nonprofits: A toolkit for social entrepreneurs. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Easterly, W., & Rebelo, S. (1992). Fiscal policy and economic growth. An empirical investigation. Journal of Monetary Economics, 32, 417–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eikenberry, A., & Kluver, J. D. (2004). The marketization of the nonprofit sector: Civil society at risk? Public Administration Review, 64(2), 132–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, J., & Twersky, F. (Eds.). (1996). New social entrepreneurs: The success, challenge and lessons of non-profit enterprise creation. San Francisco: Roberts Foundation, Homeless Economic Development Fund.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falk, R., & Miller, N. (1992). A primer for soft modeling. Akron, OH: University of Akron Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flora, P., & Albert, J. (1981). Modernization, democratization and the development of welfare states in Western Europe. In P. Flora & A. Heidenheimer (Eds.), The development of welfare states in Europe and America. New Brunswick: Transaction.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fornell, C. (1982). A second generation of multivariate analysis: An overview. In C. Fornel (Ed.), A second generation of multivariate analysis. New York: Praeger Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. (1981). Evaluating structural equations models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foster, W., & Bradach, J. (2005). Should nonprofits seek profits. Harvard Business Review, 83(2), 92–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fourthsector. (2009). The emerging fourth sector. http://www.Fourthsector.org

  • Fowler, A. (2000). NGDOs as a moment in history, beyond aid to social entrepreneurship or civic innovation? Third World Quarterly, 21(4), 637–664.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank, P. M. (2006). Non-profit entrepreneurship: Extending the concept or profit opportunitie. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management, 6(3), 224–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fukuyama, F. (1999). The great disruption: human nature and the reconstitution of order. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galindo, M. A., & Mendez, M. T. (2008). Entrepreneurship and economic policy objectives. In M. V. Bradshaw & P. T. Carrington (Eds.), Entrepreneurship and its economic significance, behavior and effects (pp. 193–204). Nueva York: Nova Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gefen, D., Straub, D. W., & Bordeau, M. C. (2000). Structural equation modelling and regression: Guidelines for research practise. Communications of the Association of Information Systems, 4(7), 1–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, B. A., McDougall, P. P., & Audretsch, D. B. (2008). Clusters, knowledge spillovers and new venture performance: An empirical examination. Journal of Business Venturing, 23(4), 405–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gripaios, P., & Bishop, P. (2005). Spatial inequalities in UK GDP per head: The role of private and public services. Service Industries Journal, 25, 945–958.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grønberj, K., & Paalberg, L. (2001). Community variations in the size and scope of the nonprofit sector: Theory and preliminary findings. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 30, 684–706.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansmann, H. (1980). The role of nonprofit enterprise. Yale Law Journal, 89(3), 835–901.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansmann, H. (1987). Economic theories of nonprofit organizations. In W. W. Powell (Ed.), The nonprofit sector: A research handbook. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haug, H. (2005). A research agenda for social entrepreneurship. Social Enterprise Journal, 1, 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hisrich, R. D., Freeman, E., Standley, A., Yankey, J. A., & Young, D. R. (2000). Entrepreneurship in the not-for-profit sector: The state of the art. In Donald L. Sexton & Raymond W. Smilor (Eds.), Entrepreneurship 2000. Chicago, Illinois: Upstart Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and post-modernization: Cultural, economic, and political change in 43 societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inglehart, R. (2000). Globalization and postmodern values. Washington Quarterly, 23(1), 215–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2005). Exploring the unknown: Predicting the responses of publics not yet surveyed. International Review of Sociology, 15(1), 173–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, E. (1987). The nonprofit sector in comparative perspective. In W. W. Powell, (Ed.), The nonprofit sector: A research handbook. New Haven: Yale U. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeavons, T. H. (1992). When the management is the message: Relating values to management practice in nonprofit organisations. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 2(4), 403–417.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanter, R. (1999). From spare to real change. Harvard Business Review, May, 122–132.

  • Kearney, C., Hisrich, R., & Roche, F. (2008). A conceptual model of public sector corporate entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 4, 295–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koning, P., Noailly, J., & Visser, S. (2007). Do not-for-profits make a difference in social services? A survey study. De Economist, 155(3), 251–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laville, J. L., & Nyssens, M. (2001). The social enterprise: Towards a theoretical socio-economic approach. In C. Borzaga & J. Defourny (Eds.), The emergence of social enterprise (pp. 312–331). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, E. (1980). Public entrepreneurship: Toward a theory of bureaucratic power. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mair, J., & Martí, I. (2006). Social entrepreneurship research: A source of explanation, prediction and delight. Journal of World Business, 41(1), 36–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mas-Verdú, F., Baviera-Puig, A., & Martinez-Gomez, V. (2009). Entrepreneurship policy and targets: The case of a low absorptive capacity region. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 5, 243–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, P. (2007). Exploiting entrepreneurial opportunities: The impact of entrepreneurship on growth. Small Business Economics, 28, 355–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • North, D. C. (1990). Institutions, institutional change and economic performance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunnally, J., & Bernstein, I. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, M. (1965). The logic of collective action. Harvard: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ortmann, A., & Schlensinger, M. (1997). Trust, repute and the role of non-profit enterprise. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 8(2), 97–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paton, R. (2003). Managing and measuring social enterprises. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peredo, A. M., & McLean, M. (2006). Social entrepreneurship: A critical review of the concept. Journal of World Business, 41(1), 56–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pomerantz, M. (2003). The business of social entrepreneurship in a “down economy”. In Business, 25(3), 25–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, R. D. (1993). Making democracy work. Civic traditions in modern Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American Community. New York: Simon and Shuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raging, C. C. (1998). Comments on ‘social origins of civil society’. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 9(3), 261–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reis, T., & Clohesy, S. (1999). Unleashing new resources and entrepreneurship for the common good: A scan, synthesis, and scenario for action, found in W. K Kellogg Foundation. http://www.wkkf.org

  • Reynolds, P., Hay, M., & Camp, S. M. (1999). Global entrepreneurship monitor. London: London Business School.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, P., Hay, M., & Camp, R. M. (2002). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. 2002 Executive Report. Babson College: London Business School.

  • Rose-Ackerman, S. (1996). Altruism, nonprofits and economic theory. Journal of Economic Literature, XXXIV, 701–728.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salamon, L. M. (1995). Partners in public service: Government-nonprofit R elations in the modern welfare state. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salamon, L. M., & Anheier, H. K. (1997). The Civil Society Sector. Society, Special Feature, -January/February.

  • Salamon, L. M., & Anheier, H. K. (1998). Social origins of civil society: Explaining the nonprofit sector cross-nationally. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Non-Profit Organizations, 9(3), 213–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saxton, G. D., & Benson, M. A. (2005). Social capital and the growth of the non-profit sector. Social Science Quarterly, 86(1), 16–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schofer, E., & Fourcade-Gorinchas, M. (2001). The structural contexts of civic engagement: Voluntary association membership in comparative perspective. American Sociological Review, 66, 806–828.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumpeter, J. A. (1934). The theory of economic development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1961.) First published in German, 1912.

  • Shane, S., & Venkataraman, S. (2000). The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 217–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharir, M., & Lermer, M. (2006). Gauging the success of social ventures initiated by individual social entrepreneurs. Journal of World Business, 41(1), 6–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, M. (1973). Job market signaling. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 87(3), 355–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, R., & Young, D. (1998). A comment on Salamon and Anheier’s “social origins of civil society”. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 9(3), 249–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stel, A., Carree, M., & Thurik, R. (2005). The effect of entrepreneurial activity on national economic growth. Small Business Economics, 24(3), 311–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steyaert, C., & Katz, J. (2004). Reclaiming the space of entrepreneurship in society: Geographical, discursive and social dimensions. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 16(May), 179–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sykes, H. B., & Block, Z. (1989). Corporate venturing obstacles: Sources and solutions. Journal of Business Venturing, 4, 159–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tan, W. L., Williams, J., & Tan T. M. (2003). What is the “social” in “social entrepreneurship”? Proceedings of the 48th world international conference for small business, Belfast, Ireland.

  • Tan, W. L., Williams, J., & Tan, T. M. (2005). Defining the ‘social’ in ‘social entrepreneurship’: Altruism and entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 1, 353–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thalhuber, J. (1998). The definition of a social entrepreneur found on National Centre for Social Entrepreneurs website. www.socialentrepreneurs.org/entredef.html

  • The Northland Institute. (2001). What is “social enterprise”. Retrieved January 19, 2004, from http://northlandinst.org/SocialEnt.cfm

  • Thompson, J. L. (2002). The world of the social entrepreneur. The International Journal of Public Sector Management, 15(4/5), 412–431.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. L., Alvy, G., & Lees, A. (2000). Social entrepreneurship—A new look at the people and potential. Management Decision, 38(5), 328–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twombly, E. (2003). What factors affect the entry and exit of nonprofit human service organisations in metropolitan areas? Nonprofit and voluntary Sector Quarterly, 32, 211–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. (2003). Handbook of non-profit institutions in the system of national account. Studies in methods. New York: Series F, N. 91.

  • Waddock, S. A., & Post, J. E. (1991). Social entrepreneurs and catalytic change. Public Administration Review, 51, 393–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, S. L. (1999). Social entrepreneurship: The role of social purpose enterprises in facilitating community economic development. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 4, 153–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weerawardena, J., & Mort Sullivan, G. (2006). Investigating social entrepreneurship: A multidimensional model. Journal of World Business, 41, 21–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisbrod, B. (1988). The nonprofit economy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wennekers, S., & Thurik, R. (1999). Linking entrepreneurship and economic growth. Small Business Economics, 13, 27–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, D. R. (1983). If not for profit, for what?. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, D. R. (1986). Entrepreneurship and the behaviour of non-profit organisations: Elements of a theory. In S. Rose-Ackerman (Ed.), The economics of non-profit institutions: Studies in structure and policy (pp. 161–184). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, D. R. (2000). Alternative models of government-nonprofit sector relations: Theoretical and international perspectives. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 29, 149–172.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

Authors are grateful to Professor Manuel Vargas for his invaluable help with statistical questions.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Economics, Finance and International Business, College of Business, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, USA

    Edward Nissan

  2. Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Plaza de la Universidad, 1, 02071, Albacete, Spain

    Maria-Soledad Castaño & Inmaculada Carrasco

Authors
  1. Edward Nissan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Maria-Soledad Castaño
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Inmaculada Carrasco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Maria-Soledad Castaño or Inmaculada Carrasco.

Additional information

Maria-Soledad Castaño and Inmaculada Carrasco are Members of Castilla-La Mancha GEM Team.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Nissan, E., Castaño, MS. & Carrasco, I. Drivers of non-profit activity: a cross-country analysis. Small Bus Econ 38, 303–320 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-010-9276-5

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-010-9276-5

Keywords

JEL Classifications

Search

Navigation