Skip to main content
Log in

Evolution and Rape: A Feminist Darwinian Perspective

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

It is commonly thought that feminist and evolutionary explanations of rape cannot be integrated. As I aim to show, this view is incorrect. Although feminist and evolutionary approaches are not compatible on all fronts, theories incorporating factors from both perspectives have been proposed, on theoretical as well as empirical grounds. Unfortunately, the debate between feminist and evolutionary scholars is frequently characterized by a lack of mutual openness and by the use of illegitimate arguments. The book A Natural History of Rape (Thornhill and Palmer 2000), and the controversy it provoked, is a case in point. I will highlight a more productive interaction of both perspectives by discussing the work of the feminist evolutionary biologist Barbara Smuts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alexander, R. D., & Noonan, K. M. (1979). Concealment of ovulation, parental care, and human social evolution. In N. A. Chagnon & W. Irons (Eds.), Evolutionary biology and human social behaviour: An anthropological perspective (pp. 436–461). North Scituate: Duxbury.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angier, N. (2000, June/July). Biological bull. Ms., 10, 80–82.

  • Betzig, L. (1993). Sex, succession, and stratification in the first six civilizations: How powerful men reproduced, passed power on to their sons, and used power to defend their wealth, women, and children. In L. Ellis (Ed.), Socioeconomic stratification and social inequality (pp. 37–74). New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brownmiller, S. (1975). Against our will: Men, women and rape. New York: Ballantine Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brownmiller, S. (2000). Thornhill: Rape on the brain. Retrieved from http://www.susanbrownmiller.com/susanbrownmiller/html/review-thornhill.html.

  • Buchwald, E., Fletcher, P. R., & Roth, M. (2005). Transforming a rape culture (Revth ed.). Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (1989). Conflict between the sexes: Strategic interference and the evocation of anger and upset. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 735–747.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (1996). Sexual conflict: Evolutionary insights into feminism and the “battle of the sexes. In D. M. Buss & N. Malamuth (Eds.), Sex, power, conflict: Evolutionary and feminist perspectives (pp. 296–328). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (1999). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Card, C. (1996). Rape as a weapon of war. Hypatia, 11, 5–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T., & Parker, G. (1995). Sexual coercion in animal societies. Animal Behaviour, 49, 1345–1365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coyne, J. A. (2000). Of vice and men: The fairy tales of evolutionary psychology. The New Republic, 3, 27–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coyne, J. A., & Berry, A. (2000). Rape as an adaptation: Is this contentious hypothesis advocacy, not science? Nature, 404, 121–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Waal, F. (2000, April 2). Survival of the rapist. The New York Times, pp. 1–2.

  • Ehrenreich, B., & English, D. (2005). For her own good: Two centuries of the experts’ advice to women (Rev. ed.). New York: Anchor Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Einon, D. (2002). More an ideologically driven sermon than science. Biology and Philosophy, 17, 445–456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, L. (1989). Theories of rape: Inquiries into the causes of sexual aggression. New York: Hemisphere.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, L. (1991). A synthesized (biosocial) theory of rape. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 631–642.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. (2010). Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ghiglieri, M. P. (1999). The dark side of man: Tracing the origins of male violence. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gowaty, P. A., & Buschhaus, N. (1998). Ultimate causation of aggressive and forced copulation in birds: Female resistance, the CODE hypothesis, and social monogamy. American Zoologist, 38, 207–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregor, T. (1990). Male dominance and sexual coercion. In J. W. Stigler, R. A. Shweder, & G. H. Herdt (Eds.), Cultural psychology (pp. 477–495). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groth, A. N., & Birnbaum, H. J. (1979). Men who rape: The psychology of the offender. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagen, R. (1979). The bio-sexual factor. Garden City: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herman, J. L. (1990). Sex offenders: A feminist perspective. In W. L. Marshall, D. R. Laws, & H. E. Barbaree (Eds.), Handbook of sexual assault: Issues, theories, and treatment of the offender (pp. 177–193). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holcomb, H., III. (1993). Sociobiology, sex and science. New York: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keeley, L. H. (1996). War before civilization: The myth of the peaceful savage. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lalumière, M. L., Chalmers, L., Quinsey, V. L., & Seto, M. C. (1996). A test of the mate deprivation hypothesis of sexual coercion. Ethology and Sociobiology, 17, 299–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lalumière, M. L., Harris, G. T., Quinsey, V. L., & Rice, M. E. (2005). The causes of rape: Understanding individual differences in male propensity for sexual aggression. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lerner, G. (1986). The creation of patriarchy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, C. (1987). Feminism unmodified. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malamuth, N. M. (1996). The confluence model of sexual aggression: Feminist and evolutionary perspectives. In D. M. Buss & N. Malamuth (Eds.), Sex, power, conflict: Evolutionary and feminist perspectives (pp. 269–295). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malamuth, N. M. (2003). Criminal and non-criminal sexual aggressors: Integrating psychopathy in a hierarchical-mediational confluence model. In R. A. Prentky, E. S. Janus, & M. C. Seto (Eds.), Sexually coercive behavior: Understanding and management (Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences) (pp. 33–58). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malamuth, N. M., & Malamuth, E. Z. (1999). Integrating multiple levels of scientific analysis and the confluence model of sexual coercers. Jurimetrics, 39, 157–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malamuth, N. M., Sockloskie, R., Koss, M. P., & Tanaka, J. (1991). The characteristics of aggressors against women: Testing a model using a national sample of college students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 670–681.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malamuth, N. M., Heavey, C. L., & Linz, D. (1993). Predicting men’s antisocial behavior against women: The interaction model of sexual aggression. In G. C. Hall, R. Hirschman, J. R. Graham, & M. S. Zaragoza (Eds.), Sexual aggression: Issues in etiology, assessment, and treatment (pp. 63–97). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCahill, T., Meyer, L., & Fischman, A. (1979). The aftermath of rape. Lexington: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mesnick, S. (1997). Sexual alliances: Evidence and evolutionary implications. In P. Gowaty (Ed.), Feminism and evolutionary biology: Boundaries, intersections, and frontiers (pp. 207–257). New York: Chapman & Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. (2000, March 6). Why men rape. Evening Standard, p. 53.

  • Muehlenhard, C. L., Danoff-Burg, S., & Powch, I. G. (1996). Is rape sex or violence? Conceptual issues and implications. In D. M. Buss & N. Malamuth (Eds.), Sex, power, conflict: Evolutionary and feminist perspectives (pp. 119–137). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niarchos, C. N. (1995). Women, war, and rape: Challenges facing the International Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Human Rights Quarterly, 17, 649–690.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oosterveld, V. (1998). When women are the spoils of war. UNESCO Courier, 51, 64–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, C. T. (1988). Twelve reasons why rape is not sexually motivated: A skeptical examination. Journal of Sex Research, 25, 512–530.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, C. T. (1989a). Is rape a cultural universal? A re-examination of the ethnographic evidence. Ethnology, 28, 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, C. T. (1989b). Rape in nonhuman animal species: Definitions, evidence, and implications. Journal of Sex Research, 26, 355–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, C. T. (1991). Human rape: Adaptation or by-product? Journal of Sex Research, 28, 365–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, C. T., & Thornhill, R. (2003a). A posse of good citizens brings outlaw evolutionists to justice: A response to Evolution, gender, and rape. Evolutionary Psychology, 1, 10–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, C. T., & Thornhill, R. (2003b). Straw men and fairy tales: Evaluating reactions to A natural history of rape. Journal of Sex Research, 40, 249–255.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perilloux, C., Duntley, J. D., & Buss, D. M. (2006). The psychology of sexual victimization: Perceived costs and strategies of prevention. Poster presented at the 4th Annual SPSP Evolutionary Psychology Pre-Conference, Palm Springs, CA.

  • Pinker, S. (2002). The blank slate: The modern denial of human nature. London: Allen Lane/The Penguin Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polaschek, D. L., Ward, T., & Hudson, S. M. (1997). Rape and rapists: Theory and treatment. Clinical Psychology Review, 2, 117–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, H. (2001). Debating rape. Lancet, 357, 727–728.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanday, P. R. (1981). The sociocultural context of rape: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Social Issues, 37, 5–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheehan, E. A. (1997). Victorian clitoridectomy: Isaac Baker Brown and his harmless operative procedure. In R. Lancaster & M. Di Leonardo (Eds.), The gender/sexuality reader (pp. 325–334). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shields, W., & Shields, M. (1983). Forcible rape: An evolutionary perspective. Ethology and Sociobiology, 4, 115–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smithyman, S. D. (1978). The undetected rapist [Doctoral dissertation], Claremont Graduate School. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International.

  • Smuts, B. (1995). The evolutionary origins of patriarchy. Human Nature, 6, 1–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smuts, B. (1996). Male aggression against women: An evolutionary perspective. In D. M. Buss & N. Malamuth (Eds.), Sex, power, conflict: Evolutionary and feminist perspectives (pp. 231–268). New York: Oxford University Press. Original article published 1992 in Human Nature, 3, 1–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smuts, B., & Smuts, R. W. (1993). Male aggression and sexual coercion of females in nonhuman primates and other mammals: Evidence and theoretical implications. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 22, 1–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Symons, D. (1979). The evolution of human sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., & Palmer, C. T. (2000). A natural history of rape: Biological bases of sexual coercion. Cambridge: MIT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., & Palmer, C. T. (2001). Rape and evolution: A reply to our critics (Preface for paperback edition of A natural history of rape). Retrieved from http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/THOUH/thornhill-preface.pdf

  • Thornhill, R., & Thornhill, N. W. (1983). Human rape: An evolutionary analysis. Ethology and Sociobiology, 4, 137–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., & Thornhill, N. W. (1989). The evolution of psychological pain. In R. W. Bell & N. J. Bell (Eds.), Sociobiology and the social sciences (pp. 73–103). Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, N. W., & Thornhill, R. (1990a). An evolutionary analysis of psychological pain following rape: I. The effects of victim’s age and marital status. Ethology and Sociobiology, 11, 155–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, N. W., & Thornhill, R. (1990b). An evolutionary analysis of psychological pain following rape: II. The effects of stranger, friend and family member offenders. Ethology and Sociobiology, 11, 177–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, N. W., & Thornhill, R. (1990c). An evolutionary analysis of psychological pain following rape: III. Effects of force and violence. Aggressive Behavior, 16, 297–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, N. W., & Thornhill, R. (1991). An evolutionary analysis of psychological pain following human (Homo sapiens) rape: IV. The effect of the nature of the sexual assault. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 105, 243–252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., & Thornhill, N. W. (1992a). The evolutionary psychology of men’s coercive sexuality. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 363–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., & Thornhill, N. W. (1992b). The study of men’s coercive sexuality: What course should it take? The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 404–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1992). The psychological foundations of culture. In J. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 19–136). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trivers, R. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In B. Campbell (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man, 1871–1971 (pp. 136–179). Chicago: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vandermassen, G. (2004). Sexual selection: A tale of male bias and feminist denial. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 11, 9–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vandermassen, G. (2005). Who’s afraid of Charles Darwin? Feminism and evolutionary theory. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vincent, N. (2006). Self-made man: One woman’s journey into manhood and back again. New York: Viking.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, C. A. (1995). Attitudes toward rape: feminist and social psychological perspectives. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wertheim, M. (2000, March 24–30). The boy can’t help it. LA Weekly, pp. 31–32.

  • Wilson, M., & Daly, M. (1992). The man who mistook his wife for a chattel. In J. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 289–322). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, M., & Daly, M. (1993). An evolutionary psychological perspective on male sexual proprietariness and violence against wives. Violence and Victims, 8, 271–294.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, M., & Mesnick, S. (1997). An empirical test of the bodyguard hypothesis. In P. Gowaty (Ed.), Feminism and evolutionary biology: Boundaries, intersections, and frontiers (pp. 505–511). New York: Chapman & Hall.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Johan Braeckman, David Buss, Marysa Demoor, Leif Edward Ottesen Kennair, Donald Symons, Jan Verbeeren, and two anonymous reviewers for valuable feedback on earlier drafts of this paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Griet Vandermassen.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Vandermassen, G. Evolution and Rape: A Feminist Darwinian Perspective. Sex Roles 64, 732–747 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9895-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9895-y

Keywords

Navigation