Abstract
As a result of China’s rural–urban bifurcation, millions of rural Chinese children grow up in the absence of one or both parents due to work migration. Contrary to the dismal picture of left-behind children that is depicted by the mass media, comparative studies based on large-scale survey data suggest that left-behind children do not fare worse than those who live with both parents. Researchers have suggested that the positive effects of remittance might outweigh the negative effects of parental absence, and this explains why there is little total effect of parental migration on children’s wellbeing. This, however, does not explain why left-behind children are doing equally well as non-left-behind children in nearly all aspects of life, some of which are affected more by parental care than by economic resources. This paper aims to explore what factors contribute to the all-round resilience of rural left-behind adolescents. Mixed methods were used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data from adolescents, caregivers, and school teachers from a migrant-sending community in central China. Data analyses reveal that adolescent interpretation of parental migration is deeply embedded in Chinese values on education and ideals of mutual responsibilities among family members, and that a positive understanding of parental motivation for labor migration and commitment to education are significant contributors to the resilience displayed by left-behind adolescents. The heterogeneities in the reaction of left-behind adolescents to parental migration demonstrate that the positive perception of parental migration is not a stand-alone protective factor.
Notes
To obtain an estimate of per capita cost of high school tuition fees, I divided the total educational revenue generated from tuition fees by the total number of enrolments. Data for the total educational revenue generated from tuition fees are from the 2012 China Educational Finance Statistical Yearbook. Data for the total number of enrolments are from the 2012 Educational Statistics Yearbook of China. Data for per capita net income for rural households are from the 2012 China Statistical Yearbook.
References
Adhikari, R., Jampaklay, A., Chamratrithirong, A., Richter, K., Pattaravanich, U., & Vapattanawong, P. (2014). The impact of parental migration on the mental health of children left behind. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 16(5), 781–789. doi:10.1007/s10903-013-9809-5.
All China Women’s Federation. (2013). A research report on rural left-behind children and urban migrant children in China. Published online at http://acwf.people.com.cn/n/2013/0510/c99013-21437965.html.
Asis, M. M. B., Huang, S., & Yeoh, B. S. A. (2004). When the light of the home is abroad: Unskilled female migration and the Filipino family. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 25(2), 198–215.
Bartelt, D. W. (1994). On resilience: Questions of validity. In M. C. Wang & E. W. Gordon (Eds.), Educational resilience in inner-city America: Challenges and prospects (pp. 97–108). New York and London: Routledge.
Camfield, L. (2012). Resilience and well-being among urban Ethiopian children: What role do social resources and competencies play? Social Indicators Research, 107(3), 393–410. doi:10.1007/s11205-011-9860-3.
Cappella, E., & Weinstein, R. S. (2001). Turning around reading achievement: Predictors of high school students’ academic resilience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(4), 758–771.
Chan, K. W., & Zhang, L. (1999). The hukou system and rural–urban migration in China: Processes and changes. The China Quarterly, 160, 818–855.
Cheng, T., & Selden, M. (1994). The origins and social consequences of China’s hukou system. The China Quarterly, 139(1994), 644–668.
Cunningham, M. E. (2014). The vulnerability of China’s left-behind children. The Wall Street Journal. Available at https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2014/03/21/the-vulnerability-of-chinas-left-behind-children/.
De Brauw, A., & Rozelle, S. (2008). Reconciling the returns to education in off-farm wage employment in rural China. Review of Development Economics, 12(1), 57–71. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9361.2007.00376.x.
Dreby, J. (2007). Children and power in Mexican transnational families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(4), 1050–1064.
Fan, C. C. (2008). China on the move: Migration, the state, and the household. London: Routledge.
Fan, C. C., & Wang, W. W. (2008). The household as security: Strategies of rural–urban migrants in China. In I. Nielsen & R. Smyth (Eds.), Migration and social protection in China (pp. 205–243). London: World Scientific.
Floyd, C. (1996). Achieving despite the odds: A study of resilience among a group of Africa American high school seniors. The Journal of Negro Education, 65(2), 181–189. doi:10.2307/2967312.
Frank, R. (2005). International migration and infant health in Mexico. Journal of Immigrant Health, 7(1), 11–22.
Frank, R., & Hummer, R. A. (2002). The other side of the paradox: The risk of low birth weight among infants of migrant and nonmigrant households within Mexico. International Migration Review, 36(3), 746–765.
Graham, E., & Jordan, L. P. (2011). Migrant parents and the psychological well-being of left-behind children in Southeast Asia. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73(4), 763–787. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2011.00844.x.
Ho, D. Y., & Kang, T. K. (1984). Intergenerational comparisons of child-rearing attitudes and practices in Hong Kong. Developmental Psychology, 20(6), 1004.
Hu, F., & Shi, Y. (2013). Remittance from migrant workers and economic development in origin places: Analyzing the factors affecting the usage of remittance. World Economic Papers, 2, 80–95.
Kanaiaupuni, S. M., & Donato, K. M. (1999). Migradollars and mortality: The effects of migration on infant survival in Mexico. Demography, 36(3), 339–353.
Krueger, A. B., & Schkade, D. A. (2008). The reliability of subjective well-being measures. Journal of Public Economics, 92(8–9), 1833–1845. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.015.
Li, Q., Mao, X., & Zhang, T. (2008). An analysis on the decision-making, amount, and usage of migrant workers’ remittances (in Chinese). China Rural Survey, 3, 2–12.
Liu, C., Zhang, L., Luo, R., Rozelle, S., Sharbono, B., & Shi, Y. (2009). Development challenges, tuition barriers, and high school education in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 29(4), 503–520.
Liu, S. (2012). Sexual abuse of children “left behind” by migrant worker parents on rise. Global Times. Available at http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/715754.shtml.
Lu, Y. (2012). Education of children left behind in rural China. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(2), 328–341.
Lu, Y. (2014). Parental migration and education of left-behind children: A comparison of two settings. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76(5), 1082–1098. doi:10.1111/jomf.12139.
Lu, Y., & Treiman, D. J. (2011). Migration, remittances and educational stratification among Blacks in apartheid and post-Apartheid South Africa. Social Forces, 89(4), 1119–1143. doi:10.1093/sf/89.4.1119.
Luo, W., & Wu, L. (2014). The measurement of psychological health in China Family Panel Studies 2012. China Family Panel Studies Technical Report No. 26.
Martin, A. (2002). Motivation and academic resilience: Developing a model for student enhancement. Australian Journal of Education, 46(1), 34–49. doi:10.1177/000494410204600104.
Masten, A. S. (1994). Resilience in individual development: Successful adaptation despite risk and adversity. In M. C. Wang & E. W. Gordon (Eds.), Educational resilience in inner-city America: Challenges and prospects (pp. 3–25). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238.
Nee, V. (1989). A theory of market transition: From redistribution to markets in state socialism. American Sociological Review, 54(5), 663–681.
Oswald, A. J., & Wu, S. (2010). Objective confirmation of subjective measures of human well-being: Evidence from the USA. Science, 327(5965), 576–579. doi:10.1126/science.1180606.
Pan, E. L., & Yi, C. C. (2011). Constructing educational resilience: The developmental trajectory of vulnerable Taiwanese youth. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 42(3), 369–383.
Parreñas, R. S. (2001). Mothering from a distance: Emotions, gender, and intergenerational relations in Filipino transnational families. Feminist Studies, 27(2), 361–390.
Peng, S. S. (1994). Understanding resilient students: The use of national longitudinal databases. In M. C. Wang & E. W. Gordon (Eds.), Educational resilience in inner-city America: Challenges and prospects (pp. 73–84). New York and London: Routledge.
Qin, L., Pomerantz, E. M., & Wang, Q. (2009). Are gains in decision-making autonomy during early adolescence beneficial for emotional functioning? The case of the United States and China. Child Development, 80(6), 1705–1721. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01363.x.
Ren, Q., & Treiman, D. J. (2013). The consequence of parental labor migration in China for children’s emotional well-being. China Family Panel Studies Working Paper Series: WP13-001.
Rigsby, L. C. (1994). The Americanization of resilience: Deconstructing research practice. In M. C. Wang & E. W. Gordon (Eds.), Educational resilience in inner-city America: Challenges and prospects (pp. 85–94). New York and London: Routledge.
Sarma, V. J., & Parinduri, R. A. (2016). What happens to children’s education when their parents emigrate? Evidence from Sri Lanka. International Journal of Educational Development, 46, 94–102. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2015.11.007.
Schoon, I., Parsons, S., & Sacker, A. (2004). Socioeconomic adversity, educational resilience, and subsequent levels of adult adaptation. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19(4), 383–404. doi:10.1177/0743558403258856.
Seccombe, K. (2002). “Beating the odds” versus “changing the odds”: Poverty, resilience, and family policy. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(2), 384–394. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00384.x.
Shek, D. T. L. (2004). Chinese cultural beliefs about adversity: Its relationship to psychological well-being, school adjustment and problem behaviour in Hong Kong adolescents with and without economic disadvantage. Childhood, 11(1), 63–80. doi:10.1177/0907568204040185.
Shek, D. T. L. (2005). A longitudinal study of Chinese cultural beliefs about adversity, psychological well-being, delinquency and substance abuse in Chinese adolescents with economic disadvantage. Social Indicators Research, 71(1–3), 385–409. doi:10.1007/s11205-004-8029-8.
Shek, D. T. L., & Chan, L. K. (1999). Hong kong Chinese parents’ perceptions of the ideal child. The Journal of Psychology, 133(3), 291–302. doi:10.1080/00223989909599742.
Shek, D. T. L., Tang, V. M. Y., & Han, X. Y. (2005). Evaluation of evaluation studies using qualitative research methods in the social work literature (1990–2003): Evidence that constitutes a wake-up call. Research on Social Work Practice, 15(3), 180–194. doi:10.1177/1049731504271603.
Shek, D. T. L., Tang, V., Lam, C. M., Lam, M. C., Tsoi, K. W., & Tsang, K. M. (2003). The relationship between Chinese cultural beliefs about adversity and psychological adjustment in Chinese families with economic disadvantage. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 31(5), 427–443. doi:10.1080/01926180390228955.
Smith, A., Lalonde, R. N., & Johnson, S. (2004). Serial migration and its implications for the parent–child relationship: A retrospective analysis of the experiences of the children of Caribbean immigrants. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 10(2), 107.
Smokowski, P. R., Reynolds, A. J., & Bezruczko, N. (1999). Resilience and protective factors in adolescence: An autobiographical perspective from disadvantaged youth. Journal of School Psychology, 37(4), 425–448. doi:10.1016/S0022-4405(99)00028-X.
State Council. (2015). Provisional regulation on residential rermit. Available at http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2015-12/12/content_10398.htm.
Suårez-Orozco, C., Todorova, I. L. G., & Louie, J. (2002). Making up for lost time: The experience of separation and reunification among immigrant families. Family Process, 41(4), 625–643.
Sung, K.-T. (1999). An exploration of actions of filial piety. Journal of Aging Studies, 12(4), 369–386.
Tsang, M. C. (2000). Education and national development in China since 1949: Oscillating policies and enduring dilemmas. China review, 2000, 579–618.
Ungar, M. (2008). Resilience across cultures. British Journal of Social Work, 38(2), 218–235. doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcl343.
Ungar, M. (2010). What is resilience across cultures and contexts? Advances to the theory of positive development among individuals and families under stress. Journal of Family Psychotherapy, 21(1), 1–16. doi:10.1080/08975351003618494.
Viet Nguyen, C. (2016). Does parental migration really benefit left-behind children? Comparative evidence from Ethiopia, India, Peru and Vietnam. Social Science and Medicine, 153, 230–239. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.02.021.
Werner, E. E. (2005). Resilience research: Past, present, and future. In R. D. Peters, B. Leadbeater, & R. J. McMahon (Eds.), Resilience in children, families, and communities: Linking context to practice and policy (pp. 3–11). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (2001). Journeys from childhood to midlife: Risk, resilience, and recovery. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.
Wu, X., & Treiman, D. J. (2004). The household registration system and social stratification in China: 1955–1996. Demography, 41(2), 363–384.
Xiang, B. (2007). How far are the left behind left behind? A preliminary study in rural China. Population, Space and Place, 13(3), 179–191.
Xiao, H. (2001). Childrearing values in the United States and China. London: Praeger Publishers.
Xie, Y., Xu, Q., Zhang, C., & Xu, H. (2012). The composite variables of China family panel studies 2010 (part two): Educational attainment and depression scale. China Family Panel Studies Tecahnical Rport No. 12.
Xu, H., & Xie, Y. (2015). The causal effects of rural-to-urban migration on children’s well-being in China. European Sociological Review. doi:10.1093/esr/jcv009.
Yang, D. (2008). International migration, remittances and household investment: Evidence from Philippine migrants’ exchange rate shocks. The Economic Journal, 118(528), 591–630.
Yao, S., Wu, B., Su, F., & Wang, J. (2010). The impact of higher education expansion on social justice in China: A spatial and inter temporal analysis. Journal of Contemporary China, 19(67), 837–854.
Ye, J., & Pan, L. (2011). Differentiated childhoods: Impacts of rural labor migration on left-behind children in China. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 38(2), 355–377.
Zhang, Y. (2010). Home alone in the countryside. China Daily. Available at http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-08/13/content_11148092.htm.
Zhao, Y. (1997). Labor migration and returns to rural education in China. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 79(4), 1278–1287.
Zhao, W., & Zhou, X. (2007). Returns to education in China’s transitional economy: Reassessment and reconceptualization. In E. Hannum & A. Park (Eds.), Education and reform in China. London: Routledge.
Zhou, C., Sylvia, S., Zhang, L., Luo, R., Yi, H., Liu, C., et al. (2015). China’s left-behind children: Impact of parental migration on health, nutrition, and educational outcomes. Health Affairs, 34(11), 1964–1971. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2015.0150.
Acknowledgements
The author thanks the adolescents, caregivers, and teachers who participated in this study. This study was funded by the Graduate Research Support Scheme of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at National University of Singapore.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hu, S. “It’s for Our Education”: Perception of Parental Migration and Resilience Among Left-behind Children in Rural China. Soc Indic Res 145, 641–661 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1725-y
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1725-y