Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Overview of Nighttime Ionospheric Instabilities at Low- and Mid-Latitudes: Coupling Aspects Resulting in Structuring at the Mesoscale

  • Published:
Space Science Reviews Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We present a review of the current state of understanding regarding two classes of irregularities causing mesoscale structuring (hundreds of kilometers) in the nighttime ionosphere at low- and mid-latitudes. Additionally, current state of understanding of equatorial plasma bubbles at low latitudes, and medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances at mid latitudes and their relationship to possible seeding from lower altitudes are described. In each case, well-developed linear theories exist to explain the general properties of the irregularities. However, these linear theories have growth rates too low to explain the actual observations, giving rise to the need to invoke seeding mechanisms. We describe the observational databases that have been compiled over the decades and discuss possible coupling and seeding mechanisms that would overcome the low growth rate and explain the observed structuring at the mesoscale. Future research directions are also briefly discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • J. Aarons, The longitudinal morphology of equatorial F-layer irregularities relevant to their occurrence. Space Sci. Rev. 63, 209–243 (1993)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M.A. Abdu, J.H.A. Sobral, I.S. Batista, V.H. Rios, C. Medina, Equatorial spread-F occurrence statistics in the American longitudes: diurnal, seasonal and solar cycle variations. Adv. Space Res. 22(6), 851–854 (1998). doi:10.1016/S0273-1177(98)00111-2

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Behnke, F-layer height bands in the nocturnal ionosphere over Arecibo. J. Geophys. Res. 84(A3), 974–978 (1979)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H.G. Booker, H.W. Wells, Scatter of radio waves by the F-region of the ionosphere. Terr. Magn. Atmos. Electr. 43(3), 249–256 (1938)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • G. Bowman, Upper atmosphere neutral-particle density variations compared with spread-f occurrence rates at locations around the world. Ann. Geophys. 10(9), 676–682 (1992)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W. Burke, L. Gentile, C. Huang, C. Valladares, S. Su, Longitudinal variability of equatorial plasma bubbles observed by DMSP and ROCSAT-1. J. Geophys. Res. 109(A12), A12301 (2004)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Cosgrove, R. Tsunoda, Simulation of the nonlinear evolution of the sporadic-e layer instability in the nighttime midlatitude ionosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 108(A7), 1283 (2003)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R.B. Cosgrove, R.T. Tsunoda, A direction-dependent instability of sporadic-E layers in the nighttime midlatitude ionosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29(18), 1864 (2002)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.B. Cosgrove, R.T. Tsunoda, Instability of the E-F coupled nighttime midlatitude ionosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 109, A04305 (2004)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.B. Cosgrove, R.T. Tsunoda, S. Fukao, M. Yamamoto, Coupling of the Perkins instability and the sporadic E layer instability derived from physical arguments. J. Geophys. Res. 109, A06301 (2004)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.W. Dungey, Convective diffusion in the equatorial F-region. J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 9(5–6), 304–310 (1956)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • G.D. Earle, A.M. Masumba, S.L. Vadas, Satellite-based measurements of gravity wave-induced midlatitude plasma density perturbations. J. Geophys. Res. 113, A03303 (2008)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D. Fritts, M. Abdu, B. Batista, I. Batista, P. Batista, R. Buriti, B. Clemesha, T. Dautermann, E. de Paula, B. Fechine et al., Overview and summary of the spread f experiment (spreadfex). Ann. Geophys. 27, 2141–2155 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D.C. Fritts, S.L. Vadas, Gravity wave penetration into the thermosphere: sensitivity to solar cycle variations and mean winds. Ann. Geophys. 26, 3841–3861 (2008)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S. Fukao, M.C. Kelley, T. Shirakawa, T. Takami, M. Yamamoto, T. Tsuda, S. Kato, Turbulent upwelling of the midlatitude ionosphere. 1. Observational results by the MU radar. J. Geophys. Res. 96(A3), 3725–3746 (1991)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S. Fukao, T. Yokoyama, T. Tayama, M. Yamamoto, T. Maruyama, S. Saito, Eastward traverse of equatorial plasma plumes observed with the Equatorial Atmosphere Radar in Indonesia. Ann. Geophys. 24, 1411–1418 (2006)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • F.J. Garcia, M.C. Kelley, J.J. Makela, C.S. Huang, Airglow observations of mesoscale low-velocity traveling ionospheric disturbances at midlatitudes. J. Geophys. Res. 105(A8), 18,407–18,415 (2000)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • C. Haldoupis, K. Schlegel, D.T. Farley, An explanation for type 1 radar echoes from the midlatitude E-region ionosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 23, 97–100 (1996)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A.M. Hamza, Perkins instability revisited. J. Geophys. Res. 104(A10), 22,567–22,575 (1999)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Hedin, E. Fleming, A. Manson, F. Schmidlin, S. Avery, R. Clark, S. Franke, G. Fraser, T. Tsuda, F. Vial et al., Empirical wind model for the upper, middle and lower atmosphere. J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 58(13), 1421–1447 (1996)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • C.O. Hines, Internal atmospheric gravity waves at ionospheric heights. Can. J. Phys. 38(11), 1441–1481 (1960)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K. Hocke, K. Schlegel, A review of atmospheric gravity waves and traveling ionospheric disturbances: 1982–1995. Ann. Geophys. 14, 14,917–14,940 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  • W.H. Hooke, Ionospheric irregularities produced by internal atmospheric gravity waves. JATP 38, 1441–1481 (1968)

    Google Scholar 

  • C.S. Huang, C. Miller, M. Kelley, Basic properties and gravity wave initiation of the midlatitude F region instability. Radio Sci. 29(1), 395–405 (1994)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • C.Y. Huang, W.J. Burke, J.S. Machuzak, L.C. Gentile, P.J. Sultan, DMSP observations of equatorial plasma bubbles in the topside ionosphere near solar maximum. J. Geophys. Res. 106(A5), 8131–8142 (2001)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Hunsucker, Atmospheric gravity waves generated in the highlatitude ionosphere: a review. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 20, 293–315 (1982)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D. Hysell, M. Larsen, C. Swenson, A. Barjatya, T. Wheeler, T. Bullett, M. Sarango, R. Woodman, Rocket and radar investigation of background electrodynamics and bottom-type scattering layers at the onset of equatorial spread F. Ann. Geophys. 24(5), 1387–1400 (2006)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D.L. Hysell, An overview and synthesis of plasma irregularities in equatorial spread F. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 62(12), 1037–1056 (2000)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D.L. Hysell, J.D. Burcham, Long term studies of equatorial spread F using the JULIA radar at Jicamarca. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 64(12–14), 1531–1543 (2002)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D.L. Hysell, E. Kudeki, Collisional shear instability in the equatorial F region ionosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 109(A11), A11301 (2004)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D.L. Hysell, M.C. Kelley, W.E. Swartz, R.F. Woodman, Seeding and layering of equatorial spread F by gravity waves. J. Geophys. Res. 95(A10), 17,253–17,260 (1990)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D.L. Hysell, M.C. Kelley, W.E. Swartz, D.T. Farley, VHF radar and rocket observations of equatorial spread F on Kwajalein. J. Geophys. Res. 99(A8), 15,065–15,085 (1994). doi:10.1029/94JA00476

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D.L. Hysell, J. Chun, J.L. Chau, Bottom-type scattering layers and equatorial spread F. Ann. Geophys. 22, 4061–4069 (2004)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D.L. Hysell, R.B. Hedden, J.L. Chau, F.R. Galindo, P.A. Roddy, R.F. Pfaff, Comparing F region ionospheric irregularity observations from C/NOFS and Jicamarca. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L00C01 (2009). doi:10.1029/2009GL038983

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • M. Kelley, The Earth’s Ionosphere: Plasma Physics and Electrodynamics (Academic Press, San Diego, 2009)

    Google Scholar 

  • M. Kelley, C. Haldoupis, M.J. Nicolls, J.J. Makela, A. Belehaki, S. Shalimov, V.K. Wong, Case studies of coupling between the E and F regions during unstable sporadic-E conditions. J. Geophys. Res. 108(A12) (2003a)

  • M. Kelley, J.J. Makela, M.N. Vlasov, A. Sur, Further studies of the Perkins stability during Space Weather Month. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 65(10), 1071–1075 (2003b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M.C. Kelley, S. Fukao, Turbulent upwelling of the midlatitude ionosphere. 2. Theoretical framework. J. Geophys. Res. 96(A3), 3747–3753 (1991)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M.C. Kelley, J.J. Makela, Resolution of the discrepancy between experiment and theory of midlatitude F-region structures. Geophys. Res. Lett. 28(13), 2589–2592 (2001)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M.C. Kelley, G. Haerendel, H. Kappler, A. Valenzuela, B.B. Balsley, D.A. Carter, W.L. Ecklund, C.W. Carlson, B. Hausler, R. Torbert, Evidence for a Rayleigh-Taylor type instability and upwelling of depleted density regions during equatorial spread-F. Geophys. Res. Lett. 3(8), 448–450 (1976)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M.C. Kelley, M.F. Larsen, C. Lahoz, J.P. McClure, Gravity-wave initiation of equatorial spread-F—a case-study. J. Geophys. Res. 86(A11), 9087–9100 (1981)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M.C. Kelley, J.J. Makela, A. Saito, N. Aponte, M. Sulzer, S.A. González, On the electrical structure of airglow depletion/height layer bands over Arecibo. Geophys. Res. Lett. 27(18), 2837–2840 (2000)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M.C. Kelley, J.J. Makela, B.M. Ledvina, P.M. Kintner, Observations of equatorial spread-F from Haleakala, Hawaii. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29(20), 2003 (2002). doi:10.1029/2002GL015509

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M.C. Kelley, J.J. Makela, O. de La Beaujardière, J. Retterer, Convective ionospheric storms: a review. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 49, RG2003 (2011). doi:10.1029/2010RG000340

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • N. Kotake, Y. Otsuka, T. Tsugawa, T. Ogawa, A. Saito, Climatological study of GPS total electron content variations caused by medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances. J. Geophys. Res. 111, A04306 (2006)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • N. Kotake, Y. Otsuka, T. Tsugawa, T. Ogawa, A. Saito, Statistical study of medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances observed with the GPS networks in Southern California. Earth Planets Space 59, 95–102 (2007)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Koustov, N. Nishitani, P.V. Panomarenko, K. Shiokawa, S. Suzuki, B.M. Shevtsov, J.W. MacDougall, Joint observations of a traveling ionospheric disturbance with the Paratunka OMTI camera and the Hokkaido HF radar. Ann. Geophys. 27, 2399–2406 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J. Krall, J. Huba, S. Ossakow, G. Joyce, J. Makela, E. Miller, M. Kelley, Modeling of equatorial plasma bubbles triggered by non-equatorial traveling ionospheric disturbances. Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L08,103 (2011)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • E. Kudeki, S. Bhattacharyya, Postsunset vortex in equatorial F-region plasma drifts and implications for bottomside spread-F. J. Geophys. Res. 104(A12), 28,163–28,170 (1999)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E. Kudeki, A. Akgiray, M. Milla, J. Chau, D. Hysell, Equatorial spread-F initiation: post-sunsent vortex, thermospheric winds, gravity waves. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 69, 17–18 (2007)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O. de La Beaujardière, The C/NOFS Science Definition Team, C/NOFS: a mission to forecast scintillations. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 66(17), 1573–1591 (2004). doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2004.07.030

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • O. de La Beaujardière, J.M. Retterer, R.F. Pfaff, C. Roth, W.J. Burke, Y.J. Su, M.C. Kelley, R.R. Ilma, G.R. Wilson, L.C. Gentile, D.E. Hunton, D.L. Cooke, C/NOFS observations of deep plasma depletions at dawn. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L00C06 (2009). doi:10.1029/2009GL038884

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R. Lundin, G. Haerendel, S. Grahn, The Freja project. Geophys. Res. Lett. 21(17), 1823–1826 (1994)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.J. Makela, A review of imaging low-latitude ionospheric irregularity processes. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 68(13), 1441–1458 (2006)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.J. Makela, M.C. Kelley, Using the 630.0-nm nightglow emission as a surrogate for the ionospheric Pedersen conductivity. J. Geophys. Res. 108(A6), 1253 (2003)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • J.J. Makela, J.W. Meriwether, J.P. Lima, E.S. Miller, S.J. Armstrong, The remote equatorial nighttime observatory of ionospheric regions project and the international heliospherical year. Earth Moon Planets 104(1), 211–226 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.J. Makela, E.S. Miller, E.R. Talaat, Nighttime medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances at low geomagnetic latitudes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37(24), L24,104 (2010a)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • J.J. Makela, S.L. Vadas, R. Muryanto, T. Duly, G. Crowley, Periodic spacing between consecutive equatorial plasma bubbles. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37, L14103 (2010b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • C. Martinis, M. Mendillo, Equatorial spread F-related airglow depletions at Arecibo and conjugate observations. J. Geophys. Res. 112, A10310 (2007)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • C. Martinis, J. Baumgardner, J. Wroten, M. Mendillo, Seasonal dependence of MSTIDs obtained from 630.0 nm airglow imaging at Arecibo. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37(11), L11,103 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • C.R. Martinis, M.J. Mendillo, J. Aarons, Toward a synthesis of equatorial spread F onset and suppression during geomagnetic storms. J. Geophys. Res. 110, A07306 (2005)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • T. Maruyama, N. Matuura, Longitudinal variability of annual changes in activity of equatorial spread F and plasma bubbles. J. Geophys. Res. 89(A12), 10,903–10,912 (1984)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.P. McClure, W.B. Hanson, J.H. Hoffman, Plasma bubbles and irregularities in the equatorial ionosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 82(19), 2650–2656 (1977)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. Mendillo, J. Baumgardner, Airglow characteristics of equatorial plasma depletions. J. Geophys. Res. 87(A9), 7641–7652 (1982)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. Mendillo, A. Tyler, Geometry of depleted plasma regions in the equatorial ionosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 88(A7), 5778–5782 (1983)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. Mendillo, J. Baumgardner, D. Nottingham, J. Aarons, B. Reinisch, J. Scali, M. Kelley, Investigations of thermospheric ionospheric dynamics with 6300-Å images from the Arecibo Observatory. J. Geophys. Res. 102(A4), 7331–7343 (1997)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J. Meriwether, J.J. Makela, Y. Huang, D.J. Fisher, R.A. Buriti, A.F. Medeiros, H. Takahashi, Climatology of the nighttime equatorial thermospheric winds and temperatures over Brazil near solar minimum. J. Geophys. Res. 116, A04322 (2011). doi:10.1029/2011JA016477

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • E.S. Miller, J.J. Makela, M.C. Kelley, Seeding of equatorial plasma depletions by polarization electric fields from middle latitudes: experimental evidence. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36(18), L18105 (2009). doi:10.1029/2009GL039695

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E.S. Miller, J.J. Makela, K.M. Groves, M.C. Kelley, R.T. Tsunoda, Coordinated study of coherent radar backscatter and optical airglow depletions in the central pacific. J. Geophys. Res. 115, A06307 (2010)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G.K. Mukherjee, Studies of the equatorial F-region depletions and dynamics using multiple wavelength nightglow imaging. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 65(3), 379–390 (2003)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • T. Ogawa, N. Balan, Y. Otsuka, K. Shiokawa, C. Ihara, T. Shimomai, A. Saito, Observations and modeling of 630 nm airglow and total electron content associated with traveling ionospheric disturbances over Shigaraki, Japan. Earth Planets Space 54, 45–56 (2002)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • T. Ogawa, N. Nishitani, Y. Otsuka, K. Shiokawa, T. Tsugawa, K. Hosokawa, Medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances observed with the SuperDARN Hokkaido radar, all-sky imager, and GPS network and their relation to concurrent sporadic E irregularities. J. Geophys. Res. 114, A03316 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Y. Otsuka, K. Shiokawa, T. Ogawa, P. Wilkinson, Geomagnetic conjugate observations of equatorial airglow depletions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29(15), 1753 (2002)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Y. Otsuka, K. Shiokawa, T. Ogawa, P. Wilkinson, Geomagnetic conjugate observations of medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances at midlatitude using all-aky airglow imagers. Geophys. Res. Lett. 31(15), L15803 (2004)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Y. Otsuka, F. Onoma, K. Shiokawa, T. Ogawa, M. Yamamoto, S. Fukao, Simultaneous observations of nighttime medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances and E-region field-aligned irregularities at midlatitude. J. Geophys. Res. 112, A06317 (2007)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Y. Otsuka, K. Shiokawa, T. Ogawa, T. Yokoyama, M. Yamamoto, Spatial relationship of nighttime medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances and F region field-aligned irregularities observed with two spaced all-sky airglow imagers and the middle and upper atmosphere radar. J. Geophys. Res. 114, A05302 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Y. Otsuka, N. Kotake, K. Shiokawa, T. Ogawa, T. Tsugawa, A. Saito, Statistical study of medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances observed with a GPS receiver network in Japan, in Aeronomy of the Earth’s Atmosphere and Ionosphere, ed. by M.A. Abdu, D. Pancheva (Springer, Berlin, 2011)

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Park, H. Lühr, C. Stolle, M. Rother, K. Min, J. Chung, Y. Kim, I. Michaelis, M. Noja, Magnetic signatures of medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances as observed by champ. J. Geophys. Res. 114(A3), A03,307 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • J. Park, H. Lühr, K.W. Min, J.J. Lee, Plasma density undulations in the nighttime mid-latitude F-region as observed by CHAMP, KOMPSAT-1, and DMSP F15. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 72(2–3), 183–192 (2010)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A.K. Patra, P.B. Rao, V.K. Anandan, A.R. Jain, Radar observations of 2.8 m equatorial spread-F irregularities. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 59(13), 1633–1641 (1997). doi:10.1016/S1364-6826(96)00162-9

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E.R. de Paula, D.L. Hysell, The São Luís 30 MHz coherent scatter ionospheric radar: system description and initial results. Radio Sci. 39, RS1014 (2004). doi:10.1029/2003RS002914

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • F. Perkins, Spread F and ionospheric currents. J. Geophys. Res. 78(1), 218–226 (1973)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A.A. Pimenta, J.A. Bittencourt, P.R. Fagundes, Y. Sahai, R.A. Buriti, H. Takahashi, M.J. Taylor, Ionospheric plasma bubble zonal drifts over the tropical region: a study using OI 630 nm emission all-sky images. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 65(10), 1117–1126 (2003)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.M. Retterer, Physics-based forecasts of equatorial radio scintillation for the Communication and Navigation Outage Forecasting System (C/NOFS). Space Weather 3, S12C03 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • C.L. Rino, R.T. Tsunoda, J. Petriceks, R.C. Livingston, M.C. Kelley, K.D. Baker, Simultaneous rocket-borne beacon and in situ measurements of equatorial spread F—intermediate wavelength results. J. Geophys. Res. 86(A4), 2411–2420 (1981)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Rishbeth, The F-region dynamo. J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 43(5–6), 387–392 (1981)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J. Röttger, Wave-like structures of large-scale equatorial spread-F irregularities. J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 35(6), 1195–1206 (1973)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Y. Sahai, P.R. Fagundes, J.A. Bittencourt, Transequatorial F-region ionospheric plasma bubbles: solar cycle effects. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 62(15), 1377–1383 (2000)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Saito, T. Iyemori, M. Sugiura, N.C. Maynard, T.L. Aggson, L.H. Brace, M. Takeda, M. Yamamoto, Conjugate occurrence of the electric field fluctuations in the nighttime midlatitude ionosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 100(A11), 21,439–21,451 (1995)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Saito, T. Iyemori, L.G. Blomberg, M. Yamamoto, M. Takeda, Conjugate observations of the mid-latitude electric field fluctuations with the MU radar and the Freja satellite. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 60, 129–140 (1998)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S. Saito, M. Yamamoto, H. Hashiguchi, A. Maegawa, A. Saito, Observational evidence of coupling between quasi-periodic echoes and medium scale traveling ionospheric disturbances. Ann. Geophys. 25, 2185–2194 (2007)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S. Saito, M. Yamamoto, H. Hashiguchi, Imaging observations of nighttime mid-latitude f-region field-aligned irregularities by an mu radar ultra-multi-channel system. Ann. Geophys. 26, 2345–2352 (2008)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K. Shiokawa, Y. Otsuka, M.K. Ejiri, Y. Sahai, T. Kadota, C. Ihara, T. Ogawa, K. Igarashi, S. Miyazaki, A. Saito, Imaging observations of the equatorward limit of midlatitude traveling ionospheric distrubances. Earth Planets Space 54, 57–62 (2002)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K. Shiokawa, C. Ihara, Y. Otsuka, T. Ogawa, Statistical study of nighttime medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances using midlatitude airglow images. J. Geophys. Res. 108(A1), 1052 (2003a)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • K. Shiokawa, Y. Otsuka, C. Ihara, T. Ogawa, F.J. Rich, Ground and satellite observations of nighttime medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbance at midlatitude. J. Geophys. Res. 108(A4), 1145 (2003b)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • K. Shiokawa, Y. Otsuka, T. Ogawa, P. Wilkinson, Time evolution of high-altitude plasma bubbles imaged at geomagnetic conjugate points. Ann. Geophys. 22, 3137–3143 (2004)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S. Singh, F.S. Johnson, R.A. Power, Gravity wave seeding of equatorial plasma bubbles. J. Geophys. Res. 102(A4), 7399–7410 (1997)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H.S.S. Sinha, S. Raizada, Some new features of ionospheric plasma depletions over the Indian zone using all sky optical imaging. Earth Planets Space 52(8), 549–559 (2000)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S.Y. Su, H.C. Yeh, R.A. Heelis, ROCSAT 1 ionospheric plasma and electrodynamics instrument observations of equatorial spread F: an early transitional scale result. J. Geophys. Res. 106(A12), 29,153–29,159 (2001)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S. Suzuki, K. Hosokawa, Y. Otsuka, K. Shiokawa, T. Ogawa, N. Nishitani, T.F. Shibata, A.V. Koustov, B.M. Shevtsov, Coordinated observations of nighttime mediumscale traveling ionospheric disturbances in 630-nm airglow and HF radar echoes at midlatitudes. J. Geophys. Res. 114, A07312 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W. Swartz, S. Collins, M. Kelley, J. Makela, E. Kudeki, S. Franke, J. Urbina, N. Aponte, S. González, M. Sulzer et al., First observations of an F-region turbulent upwelling coincident with severe E-region plasma and neutral atmosphere perturbations. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 64(12–14), 1545–1556 (2002)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Takahashi, M.J. Taylor, P.D. Pautet, A.F. Medeiros, D. Gobbi, C.M. Wrasse, J. Fechine, M.A. Abdu, I.S. Batista, E. Paula, J.H.A. Sobral, D. Arruda, S.L. Vadas, F.S. Sabbas, D.C. Fritts, Simultaneous observation of ionospheric plasma bubbles and mesospheric gravity waves during the SpreadFEx Campaign. Ann. Geophys. 27, 1477–1487 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Taori, J.J. Makela, M. Taylor, Mesospheric wave signatures and equatorial plasma bubbles: a case study. J. Geophys. Res. 115, A06302 (2010)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M.J. Taylor, J.V. Eccles, J. LaBelle, J.H.A. Sobral, High resolution OI (630 nm) image measurements of F-region depletion drifts during the Guará campaign. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24(13), 1699–1702 (1997)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S. Thampi, M. Yamamoto, R. Tsunoda, Y. Otsuka, T. Tsugawa, J. Uemoto, M. Ishii, First observations of large-scale wave structure and equatorial spread F using CERTO radio beacon on the C/NOFS satellite. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36(18), L18,111 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R. Tsunoda, R. Cosgrove, Coupled electrodynamics in the nighttime midlatitude ionosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 28(22), 4171–4174 (2001)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Tsunoda, M. Baron, J. Owev, D. Towle, Altair: an incoherent scatter radar for equatorial spread F studies. Radio Sci. 14(6), 1111–1119 (1979)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.T. Tsunoda, Control of the seasonal and longitudinal occurrence of equatorial scintillations by the longitudinal gradient in integrated E region Pedersen conductivity. J. Geophys. Res. 90(A1), 447–456 (1985)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.T. Tsunoda, On polarized frontal structures, type-1 and quasi-periodic echoes in midlatitude sporadic E. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 2614–2644 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  • R.T. Tsunoda, On seeding equatorial spread f during solstices. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37(5), L05,102 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R.T. Tsunoda, B.R. White, On the generation and growth of equatorial backscatter plumes: 1. Wave structure in the bottomside F layer. J. Geophys. Res. 86, 3610 (1981)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.T. Tsunoda, R.C. Livingston, J.P. McClure, W.B. Hanson, Equatorial plasma bubbles: vertically elongated wedges from the bottomside F layer. J. Geophys. Res. 87(A11), 9171–9180 (1982)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.T. Tsunoda, D.M. Bubenik, S.V. Thampi, M. Yamamoto, On large-scale wave structure and equatorial spread F without a post-sunset rise of the F layer. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37, L07105 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • S. Vadas, D. Fritts, Thermospheric responses to gravity waves arising from mesoscale convective complexes. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 66(6–9), 781–804 (2004)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S.L. Vadas, Horizontal and vertical propagation and dissipation of gravity waves in the thermosphere from lower atmospheric and thermospheric sources. J. Geophys. Res. 112, A06305 (2007)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S.L. Vadas, G. Crowley, Sources of the traveling ionospheric distrubances observed by the ionospheric TIDDBIT sounder near Wallops Island on October 30, 2007. J. Geophys. Res. 115, A07324 (2010)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S.L. Vadas, M.J. Taylor, P.D. Pautet, P.A. Stamus, D.C. Fritts, H.L. Liu, F.T. Sao Sabbas, V.T. Rampinelli, P. Batista, H. Takahashi, Convection: the likely source of the medium-scale gravity waves observed in the OH airglow layer near Brasilia, Brazil, during the SpreadFEx campaign. Ann. Geophys. 27, 231–259 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.D. Whitehead, The formation of the sporadic-E layer in the temperate zones. J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 20, 49–58 (1961)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R.F. Woodman, Spread F—an old equatorial aeronomy problem finally resolved? Ann. Geophys. 27, 1915–1934 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.F. Woodman, C. LaHoz, Radar observations of F-region equatorial irregularities. J. Geophys. Res. 81(31), 5447–5466 (1976)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. Yamamoto, N. Komoda, S. Fukao, R.T. Tsunoda, T. Ogawa, T. Tsuda, Spatial structure of the E region field-aligned irregularities revealed by the MU radar. Radio Sci. 29(1), 337–347 (1994)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D. Yao, J.J. Makela, Analysis of equatorial plasma bubble zonal drift velocities in the Pacific sector by imaging techniques. Ann. Geophys. 25(3), 701–709 (2007)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E. Yizengaw, M.B. Moldwin, Y. Sahai, R. de Jesus, Strong postmidnight equatorial ionospheric anomaly observations during magnetically quiet periods. J. Geophys. Res. 114, A12308 (2009). doi:10.1029/2009JA014603

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • T. Yokoyama, S. Fukao, Upwelling backscatter plumes in growth phase of equatorial spread F observed with the Equatorial Atmosphere Radar. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33, L08104 (2006)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • T. Yokoyama, D.L. Hysell, A new midlatitude ionosphere electrodynamics coupling model (MIECO): latitudinal dependence and propagation of mediumscale traveling ionospheric disturbances. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37, L08105 (2010). doi:10.1029/2010GL042598

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • T. Yokoyama, T. Horinouchi, M. Yamamoto, S. Fukao, Modulation of the midlatitude ionospheric E region by atmospheric gravity waves through polarization electric field. J. Geophys. Res. 109, A12307 (2004). doi:10.1029/2004JA010508

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • T. Yokoyama, D. Hysell, Y. Otsuka, M. Yamamoto, Three-dimensional simulation of the coupled Perkins and es-layer instabilities in the nighttime midlatitude ionosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 114(A3), A03,308 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

    Jonathan J. Makela

  2. Solar-Terrestrial Environment Laboratory, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan

    Yuichi Otsuka

Authors
  1. Jonathan J. Makela
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Yuichi Otsuka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jonathan J. Makela.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Makela, J.J., Otsuka, Y. Overview of Nighttime Ionospheric Instabilities at Low- and Mid-Latitudes: Coupling Aspects Resulting in Structuring at the Mesoscale. Space Sci Rev 168, 419–440 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-011-9816-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-011-9816-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation