Abstract
The improper disposal and informal processing of e-waste have raised serious concerns for the environment and human health worldwide. A variety of legislative frameworks have been implemented to regulate e-waste management and upcycling in order to prevent environmental pollution and adopt resource reuse. Current e-waste legislation in different countries mostly include restrictions on e-waste import/export, regulations for recycling specific categories of e-waste, and Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). This article serves as a comprehensive commentary to weigh the advantages and drawbacks of the different e-waste legislation enforced around the world. Though each country’s e-waste legislation is enframed to address the country-specific problems, the legislation is mostly not holistic, leading to different management issues. A variety of e-waste management issues prevalent in most countries (with e-waste specific legislation) have been listed and categorized for better understanding of the status quo. Further, the article proposes a generic e-waste management model catering to requirements of countries around the world. The implementation of such a model for Europe, China, India, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Australia has been illustrated to show that the model can suit both developed and developing countries with contrasting e-waste management issues. The challenges that would arise in implementing an effective legislation and mechanisms for overcoming these challenges have also been discussed. To conclude, the role of governing bodies in tackling the future e-waste problems has been highlighted. In total, the article promotes scaling up the feasibility and efficacy of the implementation of e-waste policies across the globe in the coming years.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Asante KA, Agusa T, Biney CA, Agyekum WA, Bello M, Otsuka M, Itai T, Takahashi S, Tanabe S (2012) Multi-trace element levels and arsenic speciation in urine of e-waste recycling workers from Agbogbloshie, Accra in Ghana. Sci Total Environ 424:63–73
Bader MB (1982) Jurisdictional uncertainty: the American Foreign Trade Zone. North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation 8:239
Bai R, Sutanto M (2002) The practice and challenges of solid waste management in Singapore. Waste Manag 22(5):557–567
Balde CP, Forti V, Gray V, Kuehr R, Stegmann P (2017) The global e-waste monitor 2017: quantities, flows and resources. United Nations University, International Telecommunication Union, and International Solid Waste Association
Bhaskar K, Turaga RMR (2018) India’s e-waste rules and their impact on e-waste management practices: a case study. J Ind Ecol 22(4):930–942
Cao J, Lu B, Chen Y, Zhang X, Zhai G, Zhou G, Jiang B, Schnoor JL (2016) Extended producer responsibility system in China improves e-waste recycling: government policies, enterprise, and public awareness. Renew Sust Energ Rev 62:882–894
Caravanos J, Clark E, Fuller R, Lambertson C (2011) Assessing worker and environmental chemical exposure risks at an e-waste recycling and disposal site in Accra, Ghana. J Health Pollut 1(1):16–25
Chakraborty P, Selvaraj S, Nakamura M, Prithiviraj B, Cincinelli A, Bang JJ (2018) PCBs and PCDD/Fs in soil from informal e-waste recycling sites and open dumpsites in India: levels, congener profiles and health risk assessment. Sci Total Environ 621:930–938
Chung SW, Murakami-Suzuki R (2008) A comparative study of E-waste recycling systems in Japan, South Korea and Taiwan from the EPR perspective: implications for developing countries. Kojima Chiba, vol 21
Chung SS, Zhang C (2011) An evaluation of legislative measures on electrical and electronic waste in the People’s Republic of China. Waste Manag 31(12):2638–2646
Cui H, Anderson C (2016) Literature review of hydrometallurgical recycling of printed circuit boards (PCBs). J Adv Chem Eng 6(1):1–11
Cusack P, Perrett T (2006) The EU RoHS directive and its implications for the plastics industry. Plastics, Additives and Compounding 8(3):46–49
Dias P, Bernardes AM, Huda N (2018) Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) management: an analysis on the Australian e-waste recycling scheme. J Clean Prod 197(1):750–764
European Parliament EUC (2003) RoHS Directive, Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. Off J Eur Union 13:L37
European Parliament EUC (2006) Battery Directive, Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators and repealing Directive 91/157/EEC. Official Journal of the European Union 266(26.9)
European Parliament EUC (2012) WEEE Directive, Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2012 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE). Official Journal of the European Union L 197:38–71
Frazzoli C, Orisakwe OE, Dragone R, Mantovani A (2010) Diagnostic health risk assessment of electronic waste on the general population in developing countries’ scenarios. Environ Impact Assess Rev 30(6):388–399
Fu J, Zhou Q, Liu J, Liu W, Wang T, Zhang Q, Jiang G (2008) High levels of heavy metals in rice (Oryzasativa L.) from a typical e-waste recycling area in Southeast China and its potential risk to human health. Chemosphere 71(7):1269–1275
Grant R, Oteng-Ababio M (2012) Mapping the invisible and real “African” economy: urban e-waste circuitry. Urban Geogr 33(1):1–21
Ha NN, Agusa T, Ramu K, Tu NPC, Murata S, Bulbule KA, Parthasaraty P, Takahashi S, Subramanian A, Tanabe S (2009) Contamination by trace elements at e-waste recycling sites in Bangalore, India. Chemosphere 76(1):9–15
Hackett DP (1989) Assessment of the Basel Convention on the control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal. Am Univ J Int Law Pol 5:291
Hicks C, Dietmar R, Eugster M (2005) The recycling and disposal of electrical and electronic waste in China - legislative and market responses. Environ Impact Assess Rev 25(5):459–471
Huo X, Peng L, Xu X, Zheng L, Qiu B, Qi Z, Zhang B, Han D, Piao Z (2007) Elevated blood Lead levels of children in Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling town in China. Environ Health Perspect 115(7):1113–1117
Jang YC (2010) Waste electrical and electronic equipment (weee) management in Korea: generation, collection, and recycling systems. J Mat Cycles Waste Manag 12(4):283–294
Jang YC, Kim M (2010) Management of used & end-of-life mobile phones in Korea: a review. Resour Conserv Recycl 55(1):11–19
JPN (2013) Act on promotion of recycling of small waste electrical and electronic equipment. https://www:japaneselawtranslation:go:jp/law/detailmain?re=02&vm=02&id=3209. Accessed 28 Feb 2020
Jupille J (1999) The European Union and international outcomes. Int Organ 53(2):409–425
Kahhat R, Williams E (2012) Materials flow analysis of e-waste: domestic flows and exports of used computers from the United States. Resour Conserv Recycl 67:67–74
Kahhat R, Kim J, Xu M, Allenby B, Williams E, Zhang P (2008) Exploring e-waste management systems in the United States. Resour Conserv Recycl 52(7):955–964
Kang HY, Schoenung JM (2005) Electronic waste recycling: a review of US infrastructure and technology options. Resour Conserv Recycl 45(4):368–400
Kim S, Xu X, Zhang Y, Zheng X, Liu R, Dietrich K, Reponen T, Ho S, Xie C, Sucharew H et al (2018) Metal concentrations in pregnant women and neonates from informal electronic waste recycling. J Expos Sci Environ Epidemiol:1–10
Koh S, Gunasekaran A, Tseng C (2012) Cross-tier ripple and indirect effects of directives WEEE and RoHS on greening a supply chain. Int J Prod Econ 140(1):305–317
Kumar R, Karishma (2016) Current scenario of e-waste management in India: issues and strategies. Int J Sci Res Publ 6(1)
Kummer K (1999) International management of hazardous wastes: the Basel Convention and related legal rules. Oxford University Press
Lee CH, Chang SL, Wang KM, Wen LC (2000) Management of scrap computer recycling in Taiwan. J Hazard Mater 73(3):209–220
Lee J, Song HT, Yoo JM (2007) Present status of the recycling of waste electrical and electronic equipment in Korea. Resour Conserv Recycl 50(4):380–397
Leung AO, Duzgoren-Aydin NS, Cheung K, Wong MH (2008) Heavy metals concentrations of surface dust from e-waste recycling and its human health implications in Southeast China. Environ Sci Technol 42(7):2674–2680
Liu L, Zhang B, Lin K, Zhang Y, Xu X, Huo X (2018) Thyroid disruption and reduced mental development in children from an informal e-waste recycling area: a mediation analysis. Chemosphere 193:498–505
Low JSC, Ng YT (2018) Improving the economic performance of remanufacturing systems through flexible design strategies: a case study based on remanufacturing laptop computers for the Cambodian market. Bus Strateg Environ 27(4):503–527
Low JSC, Lu WF, Lee HM, Song B (2013) Methodology for an integrated life-cycle approach to product end-of-life planning. In: Re-engineering Manufacturing for Sustainability. Springer, Berlin, pp 397–402
Low JSC, Lu WF, Song B (2014) Product structure-based integrated life-cycle analysis (PSILA): a technique for cost modelling and analysis of closed-loop production systems. J Clean Prod 70:105–117
Low JSC, Tjandra TB, Lu WF, Lee HM (2016) Adaptation of the product structure-based integrated life-cycle analysis (PSILA) technique for carbon footprint modelling and analysis of closed-loop production systems. J Clean Prod 120:105–123
Lu C, Zhang L, Zhong Y, Ren W, Tobias M, Mu Z, Ma Z, Geng Y, Xue B (2015) An overview of e-waste management in China. J Mat Cycles Waste Manag 17(1):1–12
Luo C, Liu C, Wang Y, Liu X, Li F, Zhang G, Li X (2011) Heavy metal contamination in soils and vegetables near an e-waste processing site, South China. J Hazard Mater 186(1):481–490
Lyche JL, Rosseland C, Berge G, Polder A (2015) Human health risk associated with brominated flame retardants (BFRs). Environ Int 74:170–180
MacGibbon J, Zwimpfer L(2006) E-waste in New Zealand - taking responsibility for end-of-life computers and TVs. https://www.canz.org.nz/E-waste%20in%20NZ,%20CANZ%20report,%20July%202006%20-%20Web%20version.pdf. Accessed 28 Feb 2020
Man M, Naidu R, Wong MH (2013) Persistent toxic substances released from uncontrolled e-waste recycling and actions for the future. Sci Total Environ 463:1133–1137
Manomaivibool P, Hong JH (2014) Two decades, three WEEE systems: how far did EPR evolve in Korea’s resource circulation policy? Resour Conserv Recycl 83:202–212
Mehta P (2018) E-waste, chemical toxicity, and legislation in India. In: In: Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology, 4th edn. IGI Global, pp 3066–3076
Mohanty S, Vermeersch E, Hintsa J, Di Cortemi-glia VL, Liddane M (2015) Weaknesses in European e-waste management. Operat Excellence Supply Chains 22:535
Morris A, Metternicht G (2016) Assessing effectiveness of WEEE management policy in Australia. J Environ Manag 181:218–230
N Kazzi Z, Heyl A, Ruprecht J (2012) Calcium and zinc DTPA administration for internal contamination with plutonium-238 and americium-241. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 13(10):1957–1963
National voluntary partnership for e-waste recycling in Singapore. https://www.nea.gov.sg/programmes-grants/schemes/national-voluntary-partnership-for-e-waste-recycling. Accessed 04 Oct 2018
New Zealand Legislation Local Government Act (2002) http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2002/0084/latest/DLM170873.html. Accessed 28 Feb 2020
New Zealand Legislation Resource Management Act (1991) http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1991/0069/latest/DLM230265.html. Accessed 28 Feb 2020
Nnorom IC, Osibanjo O (2008) Overview of electronic waste (e-waste) management practices and legislations, and their poor applications in the developing countries. Resour Conserv Recycl 52(6):843–858
OECD (2016) Extended producer responsibility: updated guidance for efficient waste management. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264256385-en
Ogushi Y, Kandlikar M (2007) Assessing extended producer responsibility laws in Japan
Ohajinwa CM, van Bodegom PM, Vijver MG, Peijnenburg WJ (2018) Impact of informal electronic waste recycling on metal concentrations in soils and dusts. Environ Res 164:385–394
Pariatamby A, Victor D (2013) Policy trends of e-waste management in Asia. J Mat Cycles Waste Manag 15(4):411–419
Park IH (2014) Policy direction on e-waste recycling in Korea. Published by Resource Recycling Division, Ministry of Environment, Republic of Korea pp 1-16
Pongrácz E, Pohjola VJ (2004) Re-defining waste, the concept of ownership and the role of waste management. Resour Conserv Recycl 40(2):141–153
Robinson BH (2009) E-waste: an assessment of global production and environmental impacts. Sci Total Environ 408(2):183–191
SAWEEDA (2018) Industry e-waste management plan for South Africa 2019|2024. Durban
Schmidt CW (2006) Unfair trade of e-waste in Africa. Environ Health Perspect 114(4):A232–a235
Song Q, Li J (2014) Environmental effects of heavy metals derived from the e-waste recycling activities in China: a systematic review. Waste Manag 34(12):2587–2594
Sthiannopkao S, Wong MH (2013) Handling E-waste in developed and developing countries: initiatives, practices, and consequences. Sci Total Environ 463:1147–1153
Terazono A, Murakami S, Abe N, Inanc B, Moriguchi Y, Si S, Kojima M, Yoshida A, Li J, Yang J et al (2006) Current status and research on e-waste issues in Asia. J Mat Cycles Waste Manag 8(1):1–12
The Environment (Protection) Act (1986) http://www.envfor.nic.in/legis/env/eprotect_act_1986.pdf, [Online; accessed 24-September-2018]
The E-Waste Management and Handling Rules (2011) http://cpcb.nic.in/cpcbold/ImplimentationE-Waste.pdf. Accessed 24 Sept 2018
The Hazardous Wastes Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement Rules (2008) http://cpcb.nic.in/displaypdf.php?id=aHdtZC9taHRydWxlczIwMDgucGRm, [Online; accessed 24-September-2018]
The National Archives The Packaging (Essential Requirements) Regulations 2003. http://www:legislation:gov:uk/uksi/2003/1941/contents/made, [Online; accessed 15-July-2018]
The National Archives The Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste) Regulations (2007). https://www:legislation:gov:uk/uksi/2007/871/contents/made. Accessed 15 July 2018
The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules (2000) http://envfor.nic.in/legis/ods/odsrcr.html. Accessed 24 Sept 2018
Tsai W, Chou Y (2004) Government policies for encouraging industrial waste reuse and pollution prevention in Taiwan. J Clean Prod 12(7):725–736
Turaga R, Bhaskar K (2017) EPR and policy instruments for e-waste management: a review and lessons for India’s new e-waste regulations. Proceedings of the Sixteenth International Waste Management and Land_ll Symposium, Sardinia 2017 p 9
UNE (2019) UN Report: time to seize opportunity, tackle challenge of e-waste. https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/un-report-time-seize-opportunity-tackle-challenge-e-waste. Accessed 5 Jan 2020
Wambach PF, Laul J (2008) Beryllium health effects, exposure limits and regulatory requirements. J Chem Health Saf 15(4):5–12
WEF (2019) The world’s e-waste is a huge problem. It’s also a golden opportunity. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/how-a-circularapproach-can-turn-e-waste-into-a-golden-opportunity/. Accessed 5 Jan 2020
Widmer R, Oswald-Krapf H, Sinha-Khetriwal D, Schnellmann M, Böni H (2005) Global perspectives on e-waste. Environ Impact Assess Rev 25(5):436–458
WL (2013) Offsetting the negative impacts of E-waste. http://worldloop.org/e-waste/bo2w-impact-on-co2-emissions/. Accessed 5 Jan 2020
Wong M, Wu S, Deng WJ, Yu X, Luo Q, Leung A, Wong C, Luksemburg W, Wong A (2007) Export of toxic chemicals–a review of the case of uncontrolled electronic-waste recycling. Environ Pollut 149(2):131–140
Xavier LH, Adenso-Díaz B (2015) Decision models in e-waste management and policy: a review. Decision Models in Engineering and Management, Springer, In, pp 271–291
Yadav SSK, Bandyopadhayay A (2015) The e-waste legislation and contemporary sustainability issues in India: a critical analysis. Asia-Pacific J Manag Res Innov 11(3):245–250
Ye J, Kayaga S, Smout IK (2009) Regulating for E-waste in China: Progress and Challenges
Yoon H, Jang YC (2006) The practice and challenges of electronic waste recycling in Korea with emphasis on extended producer responsibility (EPR). In: Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Symposium on Electronics and the Environment, 2006, IEEE, pp 326-330
Yu J, Williams E, Ju M, Shao C (2010) Managing e-waste in China: policies, pilot projects and alternative approaches. Resour Conserv Recycl 54(11):991–999
Zhang K, Schnoor JL, Zeng EY (2012). E-waste recycling: where does it go from here?
Zheng L, Wu K, Li Y, Qi Z, Han D, Zhang B, Gu C, Chen G, Liu J, Chen S, Xu X, Huo X (2008) Blood lead and cadmium levels and relevant factors among children from an e-waste recycling town in China. Environ Res 108(1):15–20
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Dr. Anoop C. Patil, R&D Fellow, the N.1 Institute for Health, the National University of Singapore, for his valuable suggestions to improve this paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Patil, R.A., Ramakrishna, S. A comprehensive analysis of e-waste legislation worldwide. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27, 14412–14431 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-07992-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-07992-1