Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Social Construction of National Reality: Tibet and Taiwan

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Journal of Chinese Political Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper uses the theory of social construction of reality deriving from the writings of Max Weber, Alfred Schutz, Thomas Luckmann and Peter Berger to explain the origin of national identity and hence the emergence of a nation. It argues that social construction of national reality originates from everyday life experience taken for granted during the process of socialization. Individuals make sense out of the external world. Experiences taken for granted become actor’s stock of knowledge. A common scheme of knowledge shared by the community serves to differentiate in-group (nationals) and out-group (foreigners). Collective consciousness thus defines national identity and hence a nation. Unless people (both in-group and out-group) interact with and learn from each other, different stocks of knowledge taken for granted will create political tension. This theory will be applied to understand the tensions in Tibet and along the Taiwan Strait. The paper further argues that Taiwan can hardly separate from mainland China in the future, while strong Tibetan consciousness continues to defy against powerful Chineseness, resulting in endless upheavals in the region.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. For a critique of these arguments, see Yu and Kwan [79, 1–3].

  2. As will be argued below, individuals’ actions, if socially constructed under the same environment, will give rise to collective consciousness.

  3. According to Overgaard and Zahavi [52, 97], “the life-world is the world we ordinarily take for granted, the pre-scientific, experientially given world that we are familiar with and never call into question”.

  4. Other approaches argue that power, interests and resources are the sources of conflict.

  5. For the Chinese legends in details, see Yu and Kwan [78].

  6. Chairman Mao Zedong addressed to the people at the Tiananmen Square that “the Chinese people have stood up!” during the establishment of the People’s Republic of China on September 21, 1949.

  7. Tibetan Liberation Day falls on May 23, a day when the Seventeen-Point Agreement was stipulated. It celebrates China’s territorial integrity and state sovereignty over Tibet and the expulsion of foreign imperialist powers in the region.

  8. Communist China strongly believes the “Tibet model” ensures a high degree of autonomy and can be applied to peaceful reunification with Taiwan. For the application of the “Tibet model” on Taiwan, see Norbu [49, 1–19], [50, 298–314], Chai [12, 1309–1323] and Chung [16, 233–245].

  9. Kham locates between the Tibet Autonomous Region and Sichuan. Most of the area was known as Xikang Province. Amdo is a part of Qinghai, Gansu and Sichuan Provinces and regarded as the home of many Tibetan Buddhist monks. Kham and Amdo are within de jure Chinese territory.

  10. Tibetans and Han Chinese have different appearances, languages and cultures [70, 19]. Tibetans look less oriental and have sharper features. Tibetan spoken language belongs to Tibeto-Burman. Tibetan words are derived from medieval Sanskirt. They are alphabetical, polysyllabic and inflected with case and gender structure. Chinese words are written in ideograms, monosyllabic and non-inflected. The Dalai Lama [20, 59] says “Our [Tibetans] physical appearance and our language and customs are entirely different from those of any of our neighbors. We have no ethnological connection with anyone else in our part of Asia”. More importantly, Tibetans believe in Tibetan Buddhism whereas Han Chinese are strongly influenced by Confucianism and Taoism.

  11. Avalokiteśvara, the Buddha of Compassion, incarnated as a monkey, met and married a mountain ogress. They had six offsprings who were the ancestors of modern Tibetans. Avalokiteśvara worked with other bodhisattvas and buddhas and created a Buddhist Tibet.

  12. In Tibetan Buddhism, there is no valid Tibetan word of a Buddhist [11]. Instead, they use nang-pa to define we-group or phyi-pa they-group.

  13. http://factsanddetails.com/china.php?itemid=213&catid=6&subcatid=35#08; retrieved on March 4, 2013.

  14. From the Office of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, “From Birth to Exile”, archived from the original on 20 October 2007, http://www.dalailama.com/page.4.htm; retrieved on March 7, 2013.

  15. However, the mainland government states that Tibetans are minority nationality in China and hence patron-priest relationship is equivalent to the sovereign and the subject. Hence, Tibetan patron-priest relationship confronts with traditional Chinese relationship. It raises the Sino-Tibetan tension [59], [28, 186–229], [39, 214–229].

  16. In 1969, a young nun announced that she was possessed by the goddess of Buddhism. She demanded for freedom of religion and the return of the Dalai Lama, who fled into exile 10 years earlier. Over a thousand of inspired Tibetans came to attack Chinese communist cadres. The Nyemo Incident of 1969 shows an example of persistent Tibetan consciousness under the mainland China in Tibet. For details, see Goldstein et al. [29].

  17. For the One-China policy, see State Council [66]; Ministry of Foreign Affairs [48].

  18. For some Taiwanese people, the Mainlanders are not the ‘outsiders’.

  19. On 28th February 1947, a group of government agents suspected a local woman sold illegal cigarettes and confiscated all her money and cigarettes. They beat her badly when she tried to get her possessions back. One of the government investigators shot to a crowd of people who came to intervene. The incident of February 28 provoked a widespread protest in Taiwan on March 8 in that year. The KMT troops brutally suppressed the riot and slaughtered up to 20,000 people. Many intellectuals and elites were prosecuted, killed and exiled. For details, see Lai et al. [43].

  20. The situation was similar when the Americans were furious with British brutal suppression in Boston Massacre (1770) before the American Revolution. Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (1776) condemned that Britain, being a “mother country” of the America, should be shameful on her “cruelty” and “tyranny” on Americans. He criticized Britain as “being false, selfish, narrow and ungenerous” (http://www.constitution.org/tp/comsense.htm, retrieved on 7 July, 2012).

  21. There are four types of national identification preferences in Taiwan, namely Taiwan nationalists, China nationalists, Pragmatists, and Conservatives [47, 299–314]. 1. Taiwan nationalists favor Taiwan independence and oppose unification with China even if China becomes a democratic and economically advanced nation. 2. China nationalists favor unification with the mainland. They oppose Taiwan independence because they see it as morally wrong. 3. Pragmatists favor Taiwan independence (providing that doesn’t provoke military attack from China). However, they also favor unification with the mainland (if China catches up with the level of democracy and economic development in Taiwan). 4. Conservatives reject both Taiwan independence and unification with mainland China. They prefer status quo in which Taiwan is and will remain as the Republic of China, with some attributes of an internationally-recognized sovereign nation [47, 300–301].

  22. “Taiwan has already been an independent sovereign country. Currently, Taiwan is already a country, an independent sovereign country. There is of course no question of declaring independence, because it is already a country. This is reality. This is the status quo. There is no doubt. It is not to be questioned whether you admit it or recognize it or not. It is an existing fact.” (Time Asia [February 16, 2004]: Interview of President Chen Shui-Bian [71])

  23. We thank the referee of this Journal to bring out the concept of knowledge heterogeneity regarding social identity.

  24. In particular, Taiwan has gained a full back-up from the US government.

  25. While some analysts call on Beijing to recognize the reality of ROC within “the greater China” (Hickey 2013: 17, [31]), this paper argues that “the greater China” can be constructed through cross-Strait interactions and exchanges.

  26. The 1992 Consensus between China and Taiwan is an informal, oral understanding that there exists only one China, inclusive of the mainland and Taiwan, with both sides agreeing to differ on its precise political definition. (http://taiwantoday.tw/ct.asp?xItem=192442&ctNode=413; retrieved on 27 June, 2012).

  27. Want China Times (2012 June 4) “Ma Ying-jeou calls on Beijing to address Tiananmen massacre”, from http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?id=20120604000131&cid=1101&MainCatID=0; retrieved on 27 June, 2012.

  28. According to the Office of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, there are about 300,000 Chinese soldiers stationed in Tibet. See http://www.dalailama.com/page.4.htm; retrieved on March 7, 2013.

  29. According to Jacobs [36], since 2009, at least 39 Tibetans have set themselves on fire. Of those, 30 were died. Committing suicide is a major taboo in Tibetan Buddhist culture. Senior monks are fully aware of the ramifications of self-immolation for reincarnation. Hence, self-immolation of a living Buddha confers legitimacy on political protest.

  30. The Dalai Lama blames the Beijing government “cultural genocide” for a wave of self-immolations among monks and nuns in ethnic Tibetan parts of Sichuan (BBC News, 2011 November 7, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-15617026; retrieved on 6 March 2013).

  31. Obviously, the Beijing government does not want to have a supreme religious leader in Chinese territory, challenging Beijing’s ruling authority in China. The same logic applies to the Beijing’s policy on the Vatican City. For a detail analysis of religious policies of PRC, see Lai [42].

References

  1. Adler, Emanuel. 1997. Seizing the middle ground: Constructivism in world politics. European Journal of International Relations 3(3): 319–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Adams, Vincanne. 1996. Karaoke as Modern Lhasa, Tibet: Western encounters with cultural politics. Cultural Anthropology 11(4): 510–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Amnesty International. 1992, May 19. Peoples’ Republic of China: Repression in Tibet, 1987–1992, http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA17/019/1992/en/48f7e8f8-edab-11dd-9ad7-350fb2522bdb/asa170191992en.html, retrieved on 29 July 2011.

  4. Anand, Dibyesh. 2000. (Re)imagining nationalism: Identity and representation in the Tibetan Diaspora of South Asia. Contemporary South Asia 9(3): 271–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Anderson, Benedict. 1991. Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. London: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Barnett, Robert. 2003. Chen Kuiyuan and the marketisation of policy. In Tibet and her neighbours: A history, ed. Alex McKay, 229–239. London: Edition Hansjörg Mayer.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Bauer, Otto. 1906/1966. The Nation. In Nationalism in Europe 1815 to the present, ed. Stuart Woolf, 61–84. London: Routledge.

  8. Baum, Julian, and Andrew Sherry. 1999. Identity crisis. Far Eastern Economic Review 162(9): 21–22.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Berger, Peter L., and Thomas Luckmann. 1966. The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Biersteker, Thomas J., and Cynthia Weber. 1996. The social construction of state sovereignty. In State sovereignty as social construct, ed. Thomas J. Biersteker and Cynthia Weber, 1–21. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  11. Bray, John. 1990. China and Tibet: An end to empire? The World Today 46(12): 221–224.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Chai, Trong R. 1986. The future of Taiwan. Asian Survey 26(12): 1309–1323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Checkel, Jeffrey T. 2001. Why comply? Social learning and European identity change. International Organization 55(3): 553–588.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Chen, Dung-Shen. 2001. Taiwan’s social changes in the patterns of social solidarity in the 20th century. China Quarterly 165: 61–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Chu, Jou-Juo. 2000. Nationalism and self-determination: The identity politics in Taiwan. Journal of Asian and African Studies 35(3): 301–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Chung, Chien Peng. 2001. Taiwan’s future: Mongolia or Tibet? Asian Affairs 27(4): 233–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Copper, John F. 1997. The origins of conflict across the Taiwan strait: The problem of differences in perceptions. Journal of Contemporary China 6(15): 199–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Corcuff, Stéphane. 2000. Taiwan’s ‘mainlanders’. China Perspectives 28: 71–81.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Craig, Mary. 1999. Tears of blood: A cry for Tibet. Washington, D.C: Counterpoint.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Dalai Lama. 1962. My land and my people. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Dalai Lama. 1988. Strasbourg proposal 1988: Address to the Members of the European Parliament, Strasbourg, France, June 15, 1988, http://www.dalailama.com/messages/tibet/strasbourg-proposal-1988, retrieved on 24 August, 2011.

  22. Edmondson, Robert. 2002. The February 28 incident and national identity. In Memories of the future: National identity issue and the search for a new Taiwan, ed. Stéphane Corcuff, 25–46. New York: M. E. Sharpe.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Fischer, Andrew M. 2008. ‘Population invasion’ versus urban exclusion in the Tibetan areas of Western China. Population and Development Review 34(4): 631–662.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Gellner, Ernest. 1983. Nations and nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Goffman, Erving. 1969. The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Goldstein, Melvyn C. 1997. The snow lion and the dragon: China, Tibet, and the Dalai Lama. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Goldstein, Melvyn C. 1998. Introduction. In Buddhism in contemporary Tibet: Religious revival and cultural identity, ed. Melvyn C. Goldstein and Matthew Kapstein, 1–14. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Goldstein, Melvyn C. 2004. Tibet and China in the twentieth century. In Governing China’s multiethnic frontiers, ed. Morris Rossabi, 186–229. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Goldstein, Melvyn C., Ben Jiao, and Tanzen Lhundrup. 2009. On the cultural revolution in Tibet: The Nyemo incident of 1969. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Hess, Julia M. 2009. Immigrant ambassadors: Citizenship and belonging in the Tibetan Diaspora. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Hickey, Dennis V. 2013. Wake up to reality: Taiwan, the Chinese mainland and peace across the Taiwan Strait. Journal of Chinese Political Science 18(1/March): 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Ho, Szu-Yin, and I-Chou Liu. 2002. The Taiwanese/Chinese identity of the Taiwan People in the 1990s. American Asian Review 20(2): 29–74.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Hoh, Erling. 1999. Soul searching. Far Eastern Economic Review 162(36): 70–72.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Huber, Toni. 1991. Traditional environmental protection in Tibet reconsidered. The Tibet Journal 16(2): 63–77.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Huber, Toni, and Poul Pedersen. 1997. Meterological knowledge and environmental ideas in traditional and modern societies: The case of Tibet. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 3(3): 577–597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Jacobs, Andrew. 2012 June 15. China: Tibetan dies in protest fire, The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/16/world/asia/china-tibetan-dies-in-protest-fire.html?partner=rss&emc=rss; retrieved on 29 June, 2012.

  37. Kirzner, Isreal. 1979. Perception, opportunity and profit. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Klieger, P.C. 1992. Tibetan nationalism: The role of patronage in the accomplishment of a national identity. Delhi: Forklore Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Klieger, P.C. 2006. Riding high on the Manchurian dream: Three paradigms in the construction of the Tibetan question. In Contemporary Tibet: Politics, development, and society in a disputed region, ed. Barry Sautman and June Teufel, 214–229. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Knight, Frank H. 1956. On the history and methods of economics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Kolas, Ashild. 1996. Tibetan nationalism: The politics of religion. Journal of Peace Research 33(1): 51–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Lai, H.H. 2006. Religious policies in post-totalitarian China: Maintaining political monopoly over a reviving society. Journal of Chinese Political Science 11(1/spring): 55–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Lai, Tse-han, Ramon H. Myers, and Wei Wou. 1991. A tragic beginning: The Taiwan uprising of February 28, 1947. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Liberty Age (publication year unknown) Some people opts for Taiwan self-determination, Taipei, Taiwan (text in Chinese).

  45. Mainland Affairs Council. 1999. Parity, peace, and Win-win: The Republic China’s position on the special state-to-state relationship, August 1. Taipei: Executive Yuen, Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Mainland Affairs Council. 2012. Cross-straits economic statistics monthly, no. 205, Taipei: Executive Yuen, Republic of China, http://www.mac.gov.tw/public/Attachment/042715152277.pdf; retrieved on 18 July, 2012.

  47. Marsh, Robert M. 2000. Taiwan’s future national identity: Attitudes and geopolitical constraints. International Journal of Comparative Sociology 41(3–4): 299–314.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s of Republic of China. 2000. White paper: The one China principle and the Taiwan issue, http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/topics/3713/3715/t19062.htm; retrieved on July 1, 2012.

  49. Norbu, Dawa. 1987. The future of Taiwan in the Tibetan model (1981–58): Political analogy and policy implications. China Report 23(1): 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Norbu, Dawa. 2001. China’s Tibet policy. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Nye Jr., Joseph S. 1987. Nuclear learning and U.S.-Soviet security regimes. International Organization 41(3): 371–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Overgaard, Søren, and Dan Zahavi. 2009. Phenomenological sociology—The subjectivity of everyday life. In Encountering the everyday: An introduction to the sociologies of the unnoticed, ed. M.H. Jacobsen, 93–115. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Rawnsley, Ming-Yeh T. 2003. Communications of identity in Taiwan: From the February 28th incident to the Formosa TV Corporation. In Political communications in greater China: The construction and reflection of identity, ed. Gary D. Rawnsley and Ming-Yeh T. Rawnsley. New York: Routledge Curzon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Renan, Ernest. 1996. What is a nation? In Becoming national: A reader, ed. Geoff Eley and Ronald G. Sunny, 41–55. Oxtord: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Schubert, Gunter. 1999. A new rising nation? The discourse on national identity in contemporary Taiwan. China Perspectives 23: 54–64.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Schutz, Alfred. 1976. On phenomenology and social relations. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Schutz, Alfred, and Thomas Luckmann. 1973. The structures of the life world, vol. 1. Illinois: Northwestern University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Shafer, Boyd C. 1972. Faces of nationalism: New realities and old myths. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Shakabpa, W.D. 1967/1984. Tibet: A political history. New York: Potala Publications.

  60. Shih, Cheng-Feng. 1995. National identity and Taiwan independence. Taipei: Qian Wei Publisher. text in Chinese.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Shih, Cheng-Feng. 1997. Ethnic politics and policy. Taipei: Qian Wei Publisher. text in Chinese.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Shih, Cheng-Feng. 1998. Nation and nationalism. Taipei: Qian Wei Publisher. text in Chinese.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Shih, Cheng-Feng. 2002. Ethnic identity and national identity - mainlanders and Taiwan-China relations, Paper presented at the International Studies Association 43rd Annual Convention, New Orleans.

  64. Shih, Cheng-Feng. 2004. The development of Taiwan subjectivity consciousness, paper presented at the Forum for New vision of Taiwan strategic security based on Taiwan entity, Ambassador Hotel, Taipei, May 26.

  65. Smith, Warren W. 2008. China’s Tibet? Autonomy or assimilation. Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  66. State Council (of the People’s Republic of China). 1993. The Taiwan Question and reunification of China. Beijing Review 36(6): i–viii.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Taiwan News.com. 2004 March 11. Editorial: A choice of identity, http://www.etaiwannews.com/Editorial/2004/03/11/1078972798.htm; retrieved on July 2, 2012).

  68. Tajfel, Henri, and John C. Turner. 1979. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In The social psychology of intergroup relations, ed. William G. Austin and Stephen Worchel, 34–48. Monterey: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Thomas, William I. 1923. The child in America: Behavior problems and programs. New York: Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Thurman, Robert. 1994. An outline of Tibetan culture, http://www.freetibet.org/about/tibetan-culture, retrieved on July 21, 2011.

  71. Time Asia. 2004, February 16. Strait talk: The full interview, http://www.time.com/time/asia/news/magazine/0,9754,591376,00.html; retrieved on 9 July 2012.

  72. Walker, R.B.J. 1993. Inside/outside: International relations as political theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Weber, Max. 1964. The theory of social and economic organisation. IL: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Weick, Karl E. 1969. The social psychology of organizing. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Weick, Karl E. 1995. Sensemaking in organisations. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Weigert, Andrew J. 1981. Sociology of everyday life. New York: Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Wheelis, Allen. 1958. The quest for identity. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Yu, Fu-Lai Tony, and Diana S. Kwan. 2008. Social construction of national identity: Taiwanese versus Chinese consciousness. Social Identities 14(1/January): 33–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Yu, Fu-Lai Tony and Diana S. Kwan. 2011. Social construction of Taiwan’s National Reality, International Conference on “Governance and citizenship in Asia: Paradigms and practices” organized by The Centre for Governance and Citizenship, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 18–19 March 2011.

  80. Zhang, Tiejun. 2004. Self-identity construction of the present China. Comparative Strategy 23(3): 281–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Zhao, Suisheng. 2004. A nation-state by construction: Dynamics of modern Chinese nationalism. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 6th Asian Political and International Studies Association (APISA) Congress 2012: “Policy and Politics in Changing Asia” jointly organized by the Hong Kong Institute of Education and City University of Hong Kong, 31 November – 1 December 2012. We thank the two anonymous referees of this Journal for their constructive comments. Any errors that remain are our sole responsibility,

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Economics and Finance, Hong Kong Shue Yan University, North Point, Hong Kong

    Fu Lai Tony Yu

  2. Office of Educational Services, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong

    Diana S. Kwan

Authors
  1. Fu Lai Tony Yu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Diana S. Kwan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fu Lai Tony Yu.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Yu, F.L.T., Kwan, D.S. Social Construction of National Reality: Tibet and Taiwan. J OF CHIN POLIT SCI 18, 259–279 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-013-9249-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-013-9249-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation