Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Modeling of porosity during spray forming: Part I. Effects of processing parameters

  • Published:
Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this article, a porosity model is developed based on particle packing theory, fluid mechanics, and particle thermal and dynamic behavior during spray forming. According to this model, the amount of porosity in as-deposited materials can be estimated on the basis of the average fraction of solid in the incident spray and the solid particle packing density. A porosity coefficient Φ is introduced. By using this model, the effects of deposition distance, atomization gas pressure, melt flow rate, and melt superheat on porosity are investigated. The amount of porosity demonstrates distinct V-shaped variations with the processing parameters. Finally, the optimal processing parameters for achieving low porosity are discussed on the basis of the calculated results.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. E.J. Lavernia and Y. Wu: Spray Atomization and Deposition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  2. P.S. Grant: Progr. Mater. Sci., 1995, vol. 39, pp. 497–545.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. P. Mathur, S. Annavarapu, D. Apelian, and A. Lawley: JOM, 1989, vol. 41, pp. 23–25.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. P. Mathur, S. Annavarapu, D. Apelian, and A. Lawley: Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 1991, vol. 142, pp. 261–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. P.S. Grant, W.T. Kim, B.P. Bewlay, and B. Cantor: Scripta Metall., 1989, vol. 23, pp. 1651–56.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. W.D. Cai, J. Smugeresky, and E.J. Lavernia: Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 1998, vol. 241, pp. 60–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. M.G. Benz, T.F. Sawyer, W.T. Carter, R.J. Zabala, and P.L. Dupree: Powder Metall., 1994, vol. 37, pp. 213–18.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. J. Zhang, M.N. Gungor, and E.J. Lavernia: J. Mater. Sci., 1993, vol. 28, pp. 1515–24.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. P. Mathur, D. Apelian, and A. Lawley: Acta Metall., 1989, vol. 37, pp. 429–43.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. E.J. Lavernia: Int. J. Rapid Solidification, 1989, vol. 5, pp. 47–85.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. S. Annavarapu and R. Doherty: Int. J. Powder Metall., 1993, vol. 29, pp. 331–43.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. G.M. Janowski, F.S. Biancaniello, G.E. Hicho, R.J. Fields, and S.D. Ridder: in P/M in Aerospace, Defense and Demanding Applications, F.H. Froes, ed., MPIF, Princeton, NJ, 1993, pp. 363–70.

    Google Scholar 

  13. S. Hariprasad, S.M.L. Sastry, K.L. Jerina, and R.J. Lederich: Metall. Trans. A, 1993, vol. 24A, pp. 865–73.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. H. Liu, E.J. Lavernia, and R.H. Rangel: Acta Metall. Mater., 1995, vol. 43, pp. 2053–72.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. H. Liu, R.H. Rangel, and E.J. Lavernia: Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 1995, vol. 191, pp. 171–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. M.C. Flemings: Solidification Processing, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1974, p. 35.

    Google Scholar 

  17. D. Emadi, J.E. Gruzleski, and J.M. Toguri: Metall. Trans. B, 1993, vol. 24B, pp. 1055–63.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. K. Kubo and R.D. Pehlke: Metall. Trans. B, 1985, vol. 16B, pp. 359–66.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. G.K. Sigworth and C. Wang: Metall. Trans. B, 1993, vol. 24B, pp. 349–64.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. D.R. Poirier, K. Yeum, and A.L. Maples: Metall. Trans. A, 1987, vol. 18A, pp. 1979–87.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. P. Rousset, M. Rappaz, and B. Hannart: Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 1995, vol. 26A, pp. 2349–58.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. A.K. Gupta, B.K. Saxena, S.N. Tiwari, and S.L. Malhotra: J. Mater. Sci., 1992, vol. 27, pp. 853–62.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. K. Lubanska: J. Met., 1970, vol. 32, pp. 45–49.

    Google Scholar 

  24. E.J. Lavernia, T.S. Srivatsan, and R.H. Rangel: Atomization and Sprays, 1992, vol. 2, pp. 253–74.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. A. Lawley: Atomization: the Production of Metal Powders, MPIF, Princeton, NJ, 1992, p. 74.

    Google Scholar 

  26. P.S. Grant, B. Cantor, and L. Katgerman: Acta Metall. Mater., 1993, vol. 41, pp. 3109–18.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. X. Liang and E.J. Lavernia: Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 1993, vol. 161, pp. 221–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. A. Unal: Metall. Trans. B, 1989, vol. 20B, pp. 61–69.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. E.L. Crow and K. Shimizu: Lognormal Distributions: Theory and Applications, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, 1988, p. 2.

    Google Scholar 

  30. J.E. Smith and M.L. Jordan: J. Colloid. Sci., 1964, vol. 19, pp. 549–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. A.H. Lefebvre: Atomizations and Spray, Taylor & Francis, Bristol, PA, 1989, p. 85.

    Google Scholar 

  32. C. Tornberg: in Advances in Powder Metallurgy & Particulate Materials—1992, J.M. Capus and R.M. German, eds., MPIF and APMI, Princetion, NJ, 1992, pp. 137–50.

    Google Scholar 

  33. G. Antipas, C. Lekakou, and P. Tsakiropoulos: Spray Forming 2—Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. on Spray Forming, J.V. Wood, ed., Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge, UK, 1993, pp. 15–24.

    Google Scholar 

  34. J. Szekely and N.J. Themelis: Rate Phenomena in Process Metallurgy, Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  35. D.R. Poirier and G.H. Geiger: Transport Phenomena in Materials Processing, TMS, Warrendale, PA, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  36. R.W. Fox and A.T. McDonald: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 1992, p. 633.

    Google Scholar 

  37. X. Liang and E.J. Lavernia: Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 1994, vol. 25A, pp. 2341–55.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. X. Liang, E.J. Lavernia, J. Wolfenstine, and A. Sickinger: J. Therm. Spray Technol., 1995, vol. 4, pp. 252–60.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. B. Li, X. Liang, J.C. Earthman, and E.J. Lavernia: Acta Metall. Mater., 1996, vol. 44, pp. 2409–20.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. E.J. Lavernia, E.M. Gutierrez, J. Szekely, and N.J. Grant: Int. J. Rapid Solidification, 1988, vol. 4, pp. 89–124.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. P.S. Grant, B. Cantor, and L. Katgerman: Acta Metall. Mater., 1993, vol. 41, pp. 3097–3108.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. E.-S. Lee and S. Ahn: Acta Metall. Mater., 1994, vol. 42, pp. 3231–43.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. T.W. Clyne, R.A. Ricks, and P.J. Goodhew: Int. J. Rapid Solidification, 1985, vol. 1, pp. 85–101.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. J.P. Hirth: Metall. Trans. A, 1978, vol. 9A, pp. 401–04.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. W.J. Boettinger and J.H. Perepezko: in Rapidly Solidified Alloys: Processes, Structures, Properties, Applications, H.H. Liebermann, ed., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY, 1993, pp. 17–78.

    Google Scholar 

  46. W.E. Ranz and W.R. Marshall: Chem. Eng. Progr., 1952, vol. 48, pp. 141–46 and 173–80.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. C.G. Levi and R. Mehrabian: Metall. Trans. A, 1982, vol. 13, pp. 221–34.

    Google Scholar 

  48. I. Minkoff: Solidification and Cast Structure, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1986, p. 100.

    Google Scholar 

  49. A.R. Dexter and D.W. Tanner: Nature Phys. Sci., 1972, vol. 238, pp. 31–32.

    Google Scholar 

  50. R.J. Wakeman: Powder Technol., 1975, vol. 11, pp. 297–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. H.Y. Sohn and C. Moreland: Can. J. Chem. Eng., 1968, vol. 46, pp. 162–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. R.M. German: Particle Packing Characteristics, MPIF, Princeton, NJ, 1989, p. 201.

    Google Scholar 

  53. U. Backmark, N. Backstrom, and L. Arnberg: Powder Metall. Int., 1986, vol. 18, pp. 338–40.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. G. Rai, E. Lavernia, and N.J. Grant: J. Met., 1985, vol. 37, pp. 22–26.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. S.D. Ridder and F.S. Biancaniello: Mater. Sci. Eng., 1988, vol. 98, pp. 47–51.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. N. Peronius and T.J. Sweeting: Powder Technol., 1985, vol. 42, pp. 113–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. M.K. Veistinen, E.J. Lavernia, J.C. Baram, and N.J. Grant: Int. J. Powder Metall., 1989, vol. 25, pp. 89–92.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. D.R. Lide: The CRC Chemistry and Physics Handbook, CRC Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  59. E.A. Brandes and G.B. Brook: Smithells Metals Reference Book, Butterworths-Heinemann, Oxford, United Kingdom, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  60. T.B. Massalski: Binary Alloy Phase Diagram, ASM, Materials Park, OH, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Author notes

  1. Weidong Cai (Research Associate)

    Present address: the Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Irvine, 92697, Irvine, CA

Authors and Affiliations

  1. the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Irvine

    Weidong Cai (Research Associate)

  2. the Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Irvine, 92697, Irvine, CA

    Enrique J. Lavernia (Professor)

Authors
  1. Weidong Cai
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Enrique J. Lavernia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Cai, W., Lavernia, E.J. Modeling of porosity during spray forming: Part I. Effects of processing parameters. Metall Mater Trans B 29, 1085–1096 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11663-998-0078-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11663-998-0078-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation