Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Plant protoplast technology: Current status

  • Review
  • Published:
Acta Physiologiae Plantarum Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Robust and reproducible protoplast-to-plant systems are crucial for underpinning genetic manipulation technology involving somatic hybridisation and transformation. Novel and effective approaches for maximising the efficiency of such protoplast cultures include supplementation of media with surfactants and artificial gas carriers, such as perfluorochemicals and haemoglobin. Physical parameters, particularly electrostimulation, also enhance the development of protoplasts and protoplast-derived cells in culture. DNA uptake into protoplasts is now a routine and universally accepted procedure in plant biotechnology for introducing and evaluating both short-term (transient) and long-term (stable) expression of genes in cells and regenerated plants. Importantly, protoplast fusion overcomes pre- and post-zygotic sexual incompatibility barriers and generates novel germplasm through new nuclear-cytoplasmic combinations. In this respect, considerable progress has been made in generating somatic hybrid plants, particularly in citrus, brassicas and potato. Isolated protoplasts are also a unique single cell system for evaluating aspects of ultrastructure, genetics and physiology, with potential for the biosynthesis of novel secondary products, including commercially-important recombinant proteins (e.g. antibodies), and as systems in toxicity screening. Recent advances in protoplast technology have benefited from advances in animal and microbial cell culture, with interesting parallels existing between these systems. Further innovations will necessitate the strengthening of interdisciplinary links in these research fields and the requirement for continued dialogue and co-operation between workers with diverse but complementary skills.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

AFLP:

amplified fragment length polymorphism

CAPS:

cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence

CMS:

cytoplasmic male sterility

Hb:

haemoglobin

HLB:

hydrophilic-lipophilic balance

PEG:

polyethylene glycol

PFC:

perfluorocarbon

RAPD:

random amplified polymorphic DNA

RFLP:

restriction fragment length polymorphism

SOD:

superoxide dismutase

SSR:

simple sequence repeat

References

  • Al-Forkan M., Anthony P., Power J.B., Davey M.R., Lowe K.C. 2002. Haemoglobin (Erythrogen™)-enhanced microcallus formation from protoplasts of indica rice (Oryza sativa L.). Artif. Cells Blood Substit. Immobil. Biotechnol. 29: 399–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andras S.C., Hartman T.P.V., Alexander J., McBride R., Marshall J.A., Power J.B., Cocking E.C., Davey M.R. 2000. Combined PI-DAPI staining (CPD) reveals NOR asymmetry and facilitates karyotyping of plant chromosomes. Chromosome Res. 8: 387–391.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Assani A., Haicour R., Wenzel G., Foroughi-Wehr B., Bakry F., Cote F.X., Ducreux G., Ambroise A., Grapin A. 2002. Influence of donor material and genotype on protoplast regeneration in banana and plantain cultivars (Musa spp.) Plant Sci. 162: 355–362.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Augustynowicz J., Lekka M., Burda K., Gabrys H. 2001. Correlation between chloroplast motility and elastic properties of tobacco mesophyll protoplasts. Acta Physiol. Plant. 23: 291–302.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barone A., Li J., Sebastiano A., Cardi T., Frusciante L. 2002. Evidence for tetrasomic inheritance in a tetraploid Solanum commersonii (+) S. tuberosum somatic hybrid through the use of molecular markers. Theor. Appl. Genet. 104: 539–546.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benson E.E. 2000. Do free radicals have a role in plant tissue recalcitrance? In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol.- Plant 36: 163–170.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bhat S.R., Srinivasan S. 2002. Molecular and genetic analyses of transgenic plants: Consideration and approaches. Plant Sci. 163: 673–681.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blackhall N.W., Power J.B., Lowe K.C., Davey M.R. 2000. Flow cytometry of plant cells. In: Encyclopaedia of Cell Technology, ed. by R.E. Spier, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York: 723–726.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blechl A.E. 2004. Applications of biotechnology for improving the healthfulness and utility of cereals. In: Agricultural Biotechnology: Challenges and Prospects. ACS Symp. Series, Amer. Chem. Soc. 866: 53–65.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bri re C., Barthou H., Petit Prez M. 2004. A new tool for plant cell biology: in vivo antibody uptake in plant protoplasts. Plant Cell Rep. 22: 878–884.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen L.P., Zhang M.F., Xiao Q.B., Wu J.G., Hirata Y. 2004. Plant regeneration from hypocotyl protoplasts of red cabbage (Brassica oleracea) by using nurse cultures. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. 77: 133–138.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi S.K., Choi J.K., Ryu K.H. 2003. Involvement of RNA2 for systemic infection of Cucumber Mosaic Virus isolated from lily on zucchini squash. Virus Res. 97: 1–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coca M., Bortolotti C., Rufat M., Penas G., Eritja R., Tharreau D., del Pozo A.M., Messeguer J., San Segundo B. 2004. Transgenic rice plants expressing the antifungal AFP protein from Aspergillus giganteus show enhanced resistance to the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe grisea. Plant Mol. Biol. 54: 245–259.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cormeau J., Barthou H., Jauneau A., Petitprez M., Pont-Lezica R., Galaud J.P. 2002. Cellular import of synthetic peptide using a cell-permeable sequence in plant protoplasts. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 40: 1081–1086.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daniell H., Khan M.S., Allison L. 2002. Milestones in chloroplast genetic engineering: an environmentally friendly era in biotechnology. Trends Plant Sci. 7: 84–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davey M.R., Kumar A. 1983. Higher plant protoplasts — retrospect and prospect. Int. Rev. Cytol. Suppl. 16: 219–299.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davey M.R., Rech E.L., Mulligan B.J. 1989. Direct DNA transfer to plant cells. Plant Mol. Biol. 13: 273–285.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davey M.R., Blackhall N.W., Lowe K.C., Power J.B. 1996a. Stimulation of plant cell division and organogenesis by short-term, high-voltage electrical pulses. In: Electrical Manipulation of Cells, ed. by P.T. Lynch, M.R. Davey, Chapman and Hall, New York: 273–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey M.R., Blackhall N.W., Lowe K.C., Power J.B. 1996b. Gametosomatic hybridization. In: In Vitro Haploid Production in Higher Plants, Vol. 2, ed. by S. Mohan Jain, S.K. Sopory, R.E. Vielleux, Kluwer Academic Press, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: 309–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey M.R., Power J.B., Lowe K.C. 2000a Plant protoplasts. In: Encyclopedia of Cell Technology, ed. by R.E. Spier, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York: 1034–1042.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey M.R., Lowe K.C., Power J.B. 2000b. Protoplast fusion for the generation of unique plants. In: Encyclopedia of Cell Technology, ed by R.E. Spier, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York: 1090–1096.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey M.R., Anthony P., Power J.B., Lowe K.C. 2004a. Isolation and culture of plant protoplasts: historical perspectives and current status. In: Journey of a Single Cell to Plant, ed. by S.J. Murch, P.K. Saxena, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi: 37–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey M.R., Anthony P., Power J.B., Lowe K.C. 2004b. Protoplast applications in biotechnology. In: Encyclopaedia of Plant and Crop Science, ed. by R.M. Goodman, Marcel Dekker, New York: 1061–1064.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dijak M., Smith D.L., Wilson T.J., Brown D.C.W. 1986. Stimulation of direct embryogenesis from mesophyll protoplasts of Medicago sativa. Plant Cell Rep. 5: 468–470.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doi R.H., Tamaru Y. 2001. The Clostridium cellulovorans cellulosome: an enzyme complex with plant cell wall degrading activity. Chem. Rec. 1: 24–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dovzhenko A., Koop H.U. 2003. Sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris L.): shoot regeneration from callus and callus protoplasts. Planta 217: 374–381.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dovzhenko A., Dal Bosco C., Meurer J., Koop H.U. 2003. Efficient regeneration from cotyledon protoplasts in Arabidopsis thaliana. Protoplasma 222: 107–111.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fan L.M., Wang Y.F., Wu W.H. 2003. Outward K+ channels in Brassica chinensis pollen protoplasts are regulated by external and internal pH. Protoplasma 220: 143–152.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fayez K.A., Hassanein A.M. 2000. Chlorophyll synthesis retardation and ultrastructural alterations to Solanum tuberosum chloroplasts in Solanum nigrum cells. Phytosynthetica 38: 37–44.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fu C.H., Guo W.W., Liu J.H., Deng X.X. 2003. Regeneration of Citrus sinensis (+) Clausena lansium intergeneric triploid and tetraploid somatic hybrids and their identification by molecular markers. In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. — Plant 39: 360–364.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Furuta H., Shinoyama H., Nomura Y., Maeda M., Makara K. 2004. Production of intergeneric somatic hybrids of chrysanthemum [Dendranthema × grandiflorum (Ramat.) Kitamura] and wormwood (Artemisia sieversiana J.F. Ehrh. Ex. Willd) with rust (Puccinia horiana Henning) resistance by electrofusion of protoplasts. Plant Sci. 166: 695–702.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon K.H.J., Williams M.R., Baker J.S., Gibson J.M., Bawden A.L., Millgate A.G., Larkin P.J., Hanzlik T.N. 2001. Replication-independent assembly of an insect virus (tetraviridae) in plant cells. Virology 288: 36–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gummadi S.N., Panda T. 2003. Purification and biochemical properties of microbial pectinases — a review. Process Biochem. 38: 987–996.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo W.W., Prasad D., Cheng Y.J., Serrano P., Deng X.X., Grosser J.W. 2004. Targeted cybridization in citrus: transfer of Satsuma cytoplasm to seedy cultivars for potential seedlessness. Plant Cell Rep. 22: 752–758.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hall R.D., Riksen-Bruinsma T., Weyens G.J., Rosquin L.J., Denys P.N., Evans I.J., Lathouwers J.E., Lef bvre M.P., Dunwell J.M., van Tunen A., Krens F.A. 1996. A high efficiency technique for the generation of transgenic sugar beets from stomatal guard cells. Nature Biotechnol. 14: 1133–1138.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harding K., Millam S. 2000. Analysis of chromatin, nuclear DNA and organelle composition in somatic hybrids between Solanum tuberosum and Solanum sanctae-rosae. Theor. Appl. Genet. 101: 939–947.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hao Y.J., Deng X.X. 2003. Single-cell-derived sibling lines are established as an experimental system to assess chromosome number variations in embryogenic callus cultures of sweet orange. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. 73: 275–280.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Helgeson J.P., Pohlman J.D., Austin S., Haberlach G.T., Wielgus S.M., Ronis D., Zambolim L., Tooley P., McGrath J.M., James R.V., Stevenson W.R. 1998. Somatic hybrids between Solanum bulbocastanum and potato: a new source of resistance to late blight. Theor. Appl. Genet. 96: 738–742.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hohe A., Reski R. 2002. Optimisation of a bioreactor culture of the moss Physcomitrella patens for mass production of protoplasts. Plant Sci. 163: 69–74.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holm P.B., Olsen O., Schnorf M., Brinch-Pedersen H., Knudsen S. 2000. Transformation of barley by microinjection into isolated zygote protoplasts. Transgenic Res. 9: 21–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horita M., Moorhashi H., Komai F. 2003. Production of fertile somatic hybrid plants between Oriental hybrid lily and Lilium × formolongi. Planta 217: 597–601.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jelenic S., Berljak J., Papes D., Jelaska S. 2001. Mixoploidy and chimeric structures in somaclones of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cv. Bintje. Food Technol. Biotechnol. 39: 13–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kantharajah A.S., Golegaonkar P.J. 2004. Somatic embryogenesis in eggplant. Sci. Hortic. 99: 107–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klaus S.M.J., Huang F-C., Eibl C., Koop H-U., Golds T.J. 2003. Rapid and proven production of transplastomic tobacco plants by restoration of pigmentation and photosynthesis. Plant J. 35: 811–821.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klercker J.A.F. 1892. Eine methode zur isolierung lebender protoplasten. Ofvers. Vetensk. Akad. Forh. Stokh. 9: 463–475.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koop H-U., Steinmuller K., Wagner H., Rossler C., Eibl C., Sacher L. 1996. Integration of foreign sequences into the tobacco plastome via polyethylene glycol-mediated protoplast transformation. Planta 199: 193–201.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuster E. 1909. Über die Verschmelzung nachter Protoplasten. Ber. Dtsch. Bot. Ges. 27: 589–598.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li Z.Y., Tanner G.J., Larkin P.J. 1990. Callus regeneration from Trifolium subterraneum protoplasts and enhanced protoplast division by low-voltage treatment and nurse cells. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. 21: 67–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe K.C., Davey M.R., Power J.B., Clothier R.H. 1995. Plants as toxicity screens. Pharm. News 2: 17–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowe K.C., Anthony P., Davey M.R., Power J.B. 2001. Beneficial effects of Pluronic F-68 and artificial oxygen carriers on the post-thaw recovery of cryopreserved plant cells. Artif. Cells Blood Substit. Immobil. Biotechnol. 29: 297–316.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe K.C., Anthony P., Power J.B., Davey M.R. 2003a. Novel approaches for regulating gas supply to plant systems in vitro: application and benefits of artificial gas carriers. In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. — Plant 39: 557–566.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe K.C., Wardrop J., Anthony P., Power J.B., Davey M.R. 2003b. Oxygen consumption and antioxidant status of plant cells cultured with oxygenated perfluorocarbon. In: Oxygen Transport to Tissue XXV, Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Vol 540, ed. by M.S. Thorniley, D.K. Harrison, P.E. James, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York: 157–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch P.T., Davey M.R. 1996. Electrical Manipulation of Cells. Chapman and Hall, New York, 292 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maliga P. 2003. Progress towards commercialisation of plastid transformation technology. Trends Biotechnol. 21: 20–28.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matsumoto K., Vilarinhos A.D., Oka S. 2002. Somatic hybridisation by electrofusion of banana protoplasts. Euphytica 125: 317–324.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Medina-Urrutia V., Madera K.F.L., Serrano P., Ananthakrishnan G., Grosser J.W., Guo W.W. 2004. New intergeneric somatic hybrids combining amblycarpa mandarin with six trifoliate/trifoliate hybrid selections for lime rootstock improvement. HortScience 39: 355–360.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Melayah D., Bonnivard E., Chalhoub B., Audeon C., Grandbastien M.A. 2001. The mobility of the tobacco Tnt1 retrotransposon correlates with its transcriptional activation by fungal factors. Plant J. 28: 159–168.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michel W. 1937. Über die experimentelle Fusion pflanzlicher Protoplasten. Arch. Exp. Zellforsch. Bas. Geweb. 20: 230–252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mizuhiro M., Kenichi Y., Ito K., Kadowaki S., Ohashi H., Mii M. 2001. Plant regeneration from cell suspension-derived protoplasts of Primula malacoides and Primula obconica. Plant Sci. 160: 1221–1228.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nagata T., Takebe I. 1971. Plating of isolated tobacco mesophyll protoplasts on agar medium. Planta 99: 12–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orczyk W., Przetakiewicz J., Nadolska-Orczyk A. 2003. Somatic hybrids of Solanum tuberosum — application to genetics and breeding. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. 74: 1–13.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palomares L.A., Gonzalez M., Ramirez O.T. 2000. Evidence of Pluronic F-68 direct interaction with insect cells: impact on shear protection, recombinant protein, and baculovirus production. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 26: 324–331.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pan Z.G., Liu C.Z., Murch S.J., El-Demerdash M., Saxena P.K. 2003. Plant regeneration from mesophyll protoplasts of the Egyptian medicinal plants Artemisia judaica L. and Echinops spinosissimus Turra. Plant Sci. 165: 681–687.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pan Z.G., Liu C.Z., Sobayed S.M.A., Saxena P.K. 2004. Plant regeneration from mesophyll protoplasts of Echinacea purpurea. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. 77: 251–255.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pandey S., Wang X.Q., Coursol S.A., Assmann S.M. 2002. Preparation and applications of Arabidopsis thaliana guard cell protoplasts. New Phytol. 153: 517–526.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papadakis A.K., Siminis C.I., Roubelakis-Angelakis K.A. 2001. Reduced activity of antioxidant machinery is correlated with suppression of totipotency in plant protoplasts. Plant Physiol. 126: 434–444.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paternak T., Miskolczi P., Ayaydin F., Meszaros T., Dudits D., Fehér A. 2000. Exogenous auxin and cytokinin dependent activation of CDKs and cell division in leaf protoplast-derived cells of alfalfa. Plant Growth Regul. 32: 129–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Power J.B., Davey M.R., Anthony P., Lowe K.C. 2004. Protoplast culture and regeneration. In: Encyclopedia of Plant and Crop Science, ed. by R.M. Goodman, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York: 1065–1068.

    Google Scholar 

  • Power J.B., Davey M.R., Sadia B., Anthony P., Lowe K.C. 2003. Haemoglobin-enhanced mitosis in cultured plant protoplasts. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 540: 201–206.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rakoczy-Trojanowska M. 2002. Alternative methods for plant transformation — A short review. Cell. Mol. Biol. Lett. 7: 849–858.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Repellin A., Baga M., Jauhar P.P., Chibbar R.N. 2001. Genetic enrichment of cereal crops via alien gene transfer: New challenges. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. 64: 159–183.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Riess J.G. 2001. Oxygen carriers (“blood substitutes”) — raison d’etre, chemistry, and some physiology. Chem. Rev. 101: 2797–2919.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruf S., Hermann M., Berger I.J., Carrer H., Bock R. 2001. Stable genetic transformation of tomato plastids and expression of a foreign protein in fruit. Nature Biotechnol. 19: 870–875.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sairam R.V., Seetharama N., Devi P.S., Verma A., Murthy U.R., Potrykus I. 1999. Culture and regeneration of mesophyll-derived protoplasts of sorghum (Sorghum bicolour L. Moench). Plant Cell Rep. 18: 927–977.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheen J. 2001. Signal transduction in maize and Arabidopsis mesophyll protoplasts. Plant Physiol. 127: 1466–1475.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steffens B., Feckler C., Palme K., Christian M., Bottger M., Luthen H. 2001. The auxin signal for protoplast swelling is perceived by extracellular ABP1. Plant J. 27: 591–599.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Takeda Y., Kasamo K. 2001. Transmembrane topography of plasma membrane constituents in mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) hypocotyl cells — 1. Transmembrane distribution of phospholipids. Biochim. Biophys. Acta — Biomembr. 1513: 38–48.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tang K.X., Hu Q.N., Zhao E.P., Wu A.Z. 2000. Factors influencing plant regeneration from protoplasts isolated from long-term cell suspension culture of recalcitrant Indica rice cultivar IR36. In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. — Plant 36: 255–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walmsley A.M., Arntzen C.J. 2003. Plant cell factories and mucosal vaccines. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 14: 145–150.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wardrop J., Davey M.R., Power J.B., Lowe K.C. 2002. Metabolic responses of cultured cells to oxygenated perfluorocarbon. Artif. Cells Blood Substit. Immobil. Biotechnol. 30: 63–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Winfield S., Lawton R., Daniell H., Dhir S.K. 2001. Transformation of sweet potato tissues with green-fluorescent protein gene. In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. - Plant 37: 648–653.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wurmser A.E., Nakashima K., Summers R.G., Toni N., D’Amour K.A., Lie D.C., Gage F.H. 2004. Cell-fusion independent differentiation of neural stem cells to the endothelial lineage. Nature 430: 350–356.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu Z-H., Xue H-W. 1999. Plant regeneration from cultured protoplasts. In: Morphogenesis in Plant Tissue Culture. ed. by W-Y. Soh, S.S. Bhojwani, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: 37–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamagishi T., Hishinuma T., Kataoka H. 2004. Novel sporophyte-like plants re regenerated from protoplasts fused between sporophytic and gametophytic protoplasts of Bryopsis plumosa. Planta 219: 253–260.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao J., Morozova N., Williams L., Libs L., Avivi Y., Grafi G. 2001. Two-phases of chromatin decondensation during dedifferentiation of plant cells — Distinction between competence for cell fate switch and a commitment for S phase. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 22772–22778.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao J., Mollet J.C., Lord E.M. 2004. Lily (Lilium longiflorum L.) pollen protoplast adhesion is increased in the presence of the peptide SCA. Sex. Plant Reprod. 16: 227–233.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Plant Sciences Division, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, LE12 5RD, Loughborough, UK

    Michael R. Davey, Paul Anthony & J. Brian Power

  2. School of Biology, University of Nottingham, University Park, NG7 2RD, Nottingham, UK

    Kenneth C. Lowe

Authors
  1. Michael R. Davey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Paul Anthony
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. J. Brian Power
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kenneth C. Lowe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael R. Davey.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Davey, M.R., Anthony, P., Power, J.B. et al. Plant protoplast technology: Current status. Acta Physiol Plant 27, 117–130 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11738-005-0044-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11738-005-0044-0

Key words

Search

Navigation