Abstract
Growth of populations coupled with industrial and economic development has led to conversion of natural environment to urbanized regions of high built-up areas and infrastructure. The natural space is transforming to built-up set up rigorously which is not only intensifying the thermal state but also changing the climate dynamics. This has resulted in an increase in Land Surface Temperature (LST) leading to critical consequences on the climate and human life. In this study, spatiotemporal imageries of Landsat (1992–2019) are analysed for carrying out the analysis of land indices [Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalised Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) and Enhanced Built-up Bareness Index (EBBI)], LST and surface urban heat Island (SUHI) formation for Agra City in India using summer season (April–May) data. The main focus of the present work is the study of spatial pattern of LST and land indices (i.e. NDVI, NDBI and EBBI) and their interrelationship dynamics over the city landscape in directional profiling. The results of SUHI reveal that city center has experienced 0.5–3.5 °C of higher LST than urban periphery. The NDVI vs. LST relationship is found negative, whereas both NDBI vs. LST and EBBI vs. LST relationships are found positive in selected four summer time points of 1992, 2000, 2010, and 2019. The NDVI dynamics results indicate that the forest area (viz. 3–4 km and 10–12 km from city center) experienced 3–5 °C lower LST than other parts of the city landscape. The NDBI dynamics results indicate that in built-up area (from city center to 7 km in all eight directions) experienced 2–4 °C higher LST than other parts of the city landscape (except barren soils area). The EBBI dynamics results indicate that barren soils (viz. 8–10 km of North-East direction, 14–15 km of North–West direction and 7–9 km of South–West direction) have experienced 2–5 °C of higher LST than other part of the city landscape. The purpose of is to help in enriching the knowledge base for not only understanding the dynamics of the thermal state but also in knowing the composition of the landscape for enhancing environmental sustainability and carrying capacity for Agra city.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aithal BH, Ramachandra TV (2016) Visualization of urban growth pattern in Chennai using geoinformatics and spatial metrics. J Indian Soc Remote Sens 44:617–633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12524-015-0482-0
ASCI (2019) City sanitation plan for Agra. ASCI, Hyderabad
As-syakur AR, Adnyana IWS, Arthana IW, Nuarsa IW (2012) Enhanced Built-Up and Bareness Index (EBBI) for mapping built-up and bare land in an urban area. Remote Sens 4:2957–2970. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs4102957
Barat A, Kumar S, Kumar P, Sarthi PP (2018) Characteristics of Surface Urban Heat Island (SUHI) over the Gangetic Plain of Bihar, India. Asia Pac J Atmos Sci 54:205–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13143-018-0004-4
Bokaie M, Zarkesh MK, Arasteh PD, Hosseini A (2016) Assessment of urban heat island based on the relationship between land surface temperature and land use/land cover in Tehran. Sustain Cities Soc 23:94–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2016.03.009
Chakraborti S, Banerjee A, Sannigrahi S et al (2019) Assessing the dynamic relationship among land use pattern and land surface temperature: a spatial regression approach. Asian Geogr. https://doi.org/10.1080/10225706.2019.1623054
Chen R, You X (2020) Reduction of urban heat island and associated greenhouse gas emissions. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang 25:689–711
Dissanayake D, Morimoto T, Murayama Y, Ranagalage M (2019) Impact of landscape structure on the variation of land surface temperature in sub-saharan region: a case study of Addis Ababa using Landsat Data. Sustainability 11:1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082257
dos Santos AR, de Oliveira FS, da Silva AG et al (2017) Spatial and temporal distribution of urban heat islands. Sci Total Environ 605–606:946–956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.275
Estoque RC, Murayama Y (2017) Monitoring surface urban heat island formation in a tropical mountain city using Landsat data (1987–2015). ISPRS J Photogramm Remote Sens 133:18–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2017.09.008
Estoque RC, Estoque RS, Murayama Y (2012) Prioritizing areas for rehabilitation by monitoring change in Barangay-based vegetation cover. ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi1010046
Estoque RC, Murayama Y, Myint SW (2017) Effects of landscape composition and pattern on land surface temperature: an urban heat island study in the megacities of Southeast Asia. Sci Total Environ 577:349–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.195
Fonji SF, Taff GN (2014) Using satellite data to monitor land-use land-cover change in North–Eastern Latvia. Springerplus 3:1–15
Fung CKW, Jim CY (2019) Microclimatic resilience of subtropical woodlands and urban-forest benefits. Urban For Urban Green 42:100–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.05.014
Ghosh S, Das Chatterjee N, Dinda S (2018) Relation between urban biophysical composition and dynamics of land surface temperature in the Kolkata metropolitan area: a GIS and statistical based analysis for sustainable planning. Model Earth Syst Environ. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-018-0535-9
Grover A, Singh RB (2015) Analysis of urban heat island (UHI) in relation to normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI): a comparative study of Delhi and Mumbai. Environments 2:125–138. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments2020125
Gupta P, Singh SP, Jangid A, Kumar R (2017) Characterization of black carbon in the ambient air of Agra, India: seasonal variation and meteorological influence. Adv Atmos Sci 34:1082–1094. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-017-6234-z
IPCC (2019) Climate Change and Land. An IPCC Special Report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. Summary for Policymakers
Karakuş CB (2019) The Impact of Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) changes on land surface temperature in Sivas city center and its surroundings and assessment of urban heat Island. Asia Pac J Atmos Sci 55:669–684
Kikon N, Singh P, Singh SK, Vyas A (2016) Assessment of urban heat islands (UHI) of Noida City, India using multi-temporal satellite data. Sustain Cities Soc 22:19–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2016.01.005
Kong F, Yin H, James P et al (2014) Effects of spatial pattern of greenspace on urban cooling in a large metropolitan area of eastern China. Landsc Urban Plan 128:35–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.04.018
Lee L, Chen L, Wang X, Zhao J (2011) Use of Landsat TM/ETM + data to analyze urban heat island and its relationship with land use/cover change. In: 2011 International conference on remote sensing, environment and transportation engineering, pp 922–927
Li J, Song C, Cao L et al (2011) Remote Sensing of Environment Impacts of landscape structure on surface urban heat islands: a case study of. Remote Sens Environ 115:3249–3263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2011.07.008
Ranagalage M, Estoque RC, Murayama Y (2017) An urban heat island study of the Colombo metropolitan area, Sri Lanka, based on Landsat data (1997–2017). ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf 6:189. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi6070189
Ranagalage M, Dissanayake D, Murayama Y et al (2018a) Quantifying surface urban heat island formation in the world heritage tropical mountain city of Sri Lanka. ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf 7:1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi7090341
Ranagalage M, Estoque RC, Zhang X, Murayama Y (2018b) Spatial changes of urban heat island formation in the Colombo district, Sri Lanka: implications for sustainability planning. Sustainability 10:1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051367
Rasul A, Balzter H, Smith C (2016) Diurnal and seasonal variation of surface urban cool and heat islands in the semi-arid city of Erbil, Iraq. Climate 4:1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli4030042
Rousta I, Sarif MO, Gupta RD et al (2018) Spatiotemporal analysis of land use/land cover and its effects on surface urban heat island using landsat data: a case study of Metropolitan City Tehran (1988–2018). Sustainability 10:4433. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124433
Sarif MO, Gupta RD (2019) Land surface temperature profiling and its relationships with land indices: a case study on Lucknow City. In: ISPRS annals of photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, pp 89–96
Sarif MO, Gupta RD (2020) Change assessment of spatio-temporal dynamics of land use/land cover using remote sensing and GIS: a case study of Lucknow city (1993-2019). In: Indian Cartographer. Organising Committee, 39th INCA International Congress, Survey of India, Hathibarkala, Dehradun-248001, Dehradun
Sen S, Roesler J, Ruddell B, Middel A (2019) Cool pavement strategies for urban heat Island mitigation in suburban phoenix, Arizona. Sustainability 11:4452. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11164452
Sharma VR, Bisht K (2019) Estimation of land surface temperature using Landsat data: a case study of Agra city, India. Int J Adv Res Ideas Innov Technol 5:1850–1857
Simwanda M, Ranagalage M, Estoque RC, Murayama Y (2019) Spatial analysis of surface urban heat islands in four rapidly growing African cities. Remote Sens 11:1645. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11141645
Singh P, Kikon N, Verma P (2017) Impact of land use change and urbanization on urban heat island in Lucknow city, Central India: a remote sensing based estimate. Sustain Cities Soc 32:100–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.02.018
Sobrino JA, Jiménez-Muñoz JC, Paolini L (2004) Land surface temperature retrieval from LANDSAT TM 5. Remote Sens Environ 90:434–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2004.02.003
Son NT, Chen CF, Chen CR et al (2017) Assessment of urbanization and urban heat islands in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam using Landsat data. Sustain Cities Soc 30:150–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.01.009
Sultana S, Satyanarayana ANV (2018) Urban heat island intensity during winter over metropolitan cities of India using remote-sensing techniques: impact of urbanization. Int J Remote Sens. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2018.1466072
Sultana S, Satyanarayana ANV (2020) Assessment of urbanisation and urban heat island intensities using landsat imageries during 2000–2018 over a sub-tropical Indian City. Sustain Cities Soc 52:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101846
UN (2018) The World’s Cities in 2018. Departmentof Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2018). The World’s Cities in 2018—Data Booklet (ST/ESA/SER.A/417). UN, pp 1–34
Weng Q, Lu D, Schubring J (2004) Estimation of land surface temperature-vegetation abundance relationship for urban heat island studies. Remote Sens Environ 89:467–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2003.11.005
Ziaul S, Pal S (2016) Image based surface temperature extraction and trend detection in an urban area of West Bengal, India. J Environ Geogr 9:13–25. https://doi.org/10.1515/jengeo-2016-0008
Acknowledgements
Authors are highly thankful to United States Geological Surveys (USGS) for free availability of Landsat and SRTM datasets. Authors are also highly thankful to Google Earth Engine for free availability of past imageries. Authors are also thankful to blind reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions in enahnacement of this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The author declares that there is no competing interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pathak, C., Chandra, S., Maurya, G. et al. The Effects of Land Indices on Thermal State in Surface Urban Heat Island Formation: A Case Study on Agra City in India Using Remote Sensing Data (1992–2019). Earth Syst Environ 5, 135–154 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-020-00172-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-020-00172-8